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Deutsch-Englisch-Übersetzung für: adult
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Wörterbuch Englisch ↔ Deutsch: adult
film lit. adult {adj} [pornographic]
film lit. RadioTV adult content
biol. med. VetMed. adult mortality
biol. med. VetMed. adult mortality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Living organism that has reached sexual maturity
"Adulthood" redirects here. For other uses, see Adult (disambiguation) and Adulthood (disambiguation) .

^ Thomas Edward McNamara (2004). Evolution, Culture, and Consciousness: The Discovery of the Preconscious Mind . University Press of America . pp. 262–263. ISBN 0-7618-2765-X . Retrieved December 11, 2018 .

^ Marantz Henig, Robin (2010-08-18). "What Is It About 20-Somethings?" . New York Times . p. 10 . Retrieved 2010-09-24 . THE DISCOVERY OF adolescence is generally dated to 1904, with the publication of the massive study "Adolescence," by G. Stanley Hall, a prominent psychologist and first president of the American Psychological Association.

^ Saul, Roger (2016). "Adolescence and ClockTime: Two modern concepts intertwined, revisited, reconsidered" . Global Studies of Childhood . 6 (2): 234–245. doi : 10.1177/2043610616647643 . ISSN 2043-6106 .

^ International Dictionary of Medicine and Biology (1986)

^ Churchill's Medical Dictionary (1989)

^ Gluckman, Peter D.; Hanson, Mark A. (January 2006). "Evolution, development and timing of puberty". Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism . 17 (1): 7–12. doi : 10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006 . PMID 16311040 . S2CID 26141301 .

^ Kail, RV; Cavanaugh JC (2010). Human Development: A Lifespan View (5th ed.). Cengage Learning . p. 296. ISBN 978-0-495-60037-4 .

^ Schuiling, Kerri Durnell; Likis, Frances E. (2016). Women's Gynecologic Health . Jones & Bartlett Learning . p. 22. ISBN 978-1-284-12501-6 . Retrieved March 20, 2018 . The changes that occur during puberty usually happen in an ordered sequence, beginning with thelarche (breast development) at around age 10 or 11, followed by adrenarche (growth of pubic hair due to androgen stimulation), peak height velocity, and finally menarche (the onset of menses), which usually occurs around age 12 or 13.

^ Jump up to: a b D. C. Phillips (2014). Encyclopedia of Educational Theory and Philosophy . Sage Publications . pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-1-4833-6475-9 . Retrieved March 20, 2018 . On average, the onset of puberty is about 18 months earlier for girls (usually starting around the age of 10 or 11 and lasting until they are 15 to 17) than for boys (who usually begin puberty at about the age of 11 to 12 and complete it by the age of 16 to 17, on average).

^ Solomon, Jean W.; O'Brien, Jane Clifford (2014). Pediatric Skills for Occupational Therapy Assistants – E-Book . Elsevier Health Sciences . p. 103. ISBN 978-0-323-29163-7 . Retrieved March 20, 2018 .

^ Ge, Xiaojia; Natsuaki, Misaki N.; Neiderhiser, Jenae M. ; Reiss, David (2007). "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Pubertal Timing: Results From Two National Sibling Studies". Journal of Research on Adolescence . 17 (4): 767–788. doi : 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00546.x .

^ "Stages of puberty: what happens to boys and girls" . nhs.uk . 2018-04-26 . Retrieved 2020-12-13 . [ dead link ]

^ Cox, Tony (October 10, 2011). "Brain Maturity Extends Well Beyond Teen Years" . NPR . Retrieved March 11, 2021 .

^ "People don't become 'adults' until their 30s, say scientists" . BBC News . 19 March 2019.

^ Romer, Daniel (2010). "Adolescent risk taking, impulsivity, and brain development: implications for prevention" . Developmental Psychobiology . 52 (3): 263–276. doi : 10.1002/dev.20442 . PMC 3445337 . PMID 20175097 .

^ Casey, BJ ; Caudle, Kristina (2013). "The Teenage Brain: Self Control" . Current Directions in Psychological Science . 22 (2): 82–87. doi : 10.1177/0963721413480170 . PMC 4182916 . PMID 25284961 .

^ Epstein, Robert (2007-06-01). "The Myth of the Teen Brain" . scientificamerican.com . Retrieved 2021-12-07 .

^ David Moshman (2011). Adolescent Rationality and Development . Psychology Press. doi : 10.4324/9780203835111 . ISBN 9780203835111 . Retrieved 2021-12-07 .

^ Spooner, Samantha (July 14, 2014). "Legal ages of marriage across Africa: Even when it's 18, they are married off at 12!" . Mail & Guardian Africa . Archived from the original on January 24, 2018.

^ Bellemare, Steven (July 2008). "Age of consent for sexual activity in Canada" . Paediatrics & Child Health . 13 (6): 475. doi : 10.1093/pch/13.6.475 . PMC 2532909 . PMID 19436429 .

^ B. A., Political Science. "What Does Age of Majority Mean in Canada?" . ThoughtCo . Retrieved 2020-12-13 .

^ "Age of Majority by State as of 2020" . Policygenius . Retrieved 2020-12-13 .

^ Birnbaum, Gemma R. " "Old Enough to Fight, Old Enough to Vote": The WWII Roots of the 26th Amendment" .

^ https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-82/pdf/STATUTE-82-Pg1213-2.pdf [ full citation needed ]

^ "The 1984 National Minimum Drinking Age Act | APIS - Alcohol Policy Information System" .

^ DeMatteo, Megan (22 July 2020). "My first unsecured credit card came with a $20,000 limit—here's why that is rare today" . CNBC .

^ "Young Adults and the Affordable Care Act: Protecting Young Adults and Eliminating Burdens on Families and Businesses | CMS" .

^ "Tobacco 21" . FDA . 22 February 2021.

^ "What is the Age Limit of Medical Cannabis in California?" . 18 September 2018.

^ Lindeman, Tracey (30 October 2019). "Quebec raises legal consumption age for cannabis to 21" . TheGuardian.com .

^ "Mandatory life without parole prohibited for young WA adults" . 11 March 2021.

^ Michaels, Andrew (9 June 2016). "A Decent Proposal: Exempting Eighteen- to Twenty-Year-Olds from the Death Penalty" .

^ "Kentucky Trial Judge Rules Death Penalty Unconstitutional for Offenders Younger Than Age 21" .

^ "Should 18- to 21-year-olds be eligible for execution?" .

^ "Texas bill aims to crack down on human trafficking" . 29 April 2021.

^ "Raise age for sale of cigarettes to 21 and stop 'tobacco epidemic', say UK MPS" . TheGuardian.com . 9 June 2021.

^ Arain, Mariam; Haque, Maliha; Johal, Lina; Mathur, Puja; Nel, Wynand; Rais, Afsha; Sandhu, Ranbir; Sharma, Sushil (2013). "Maturation of the adolescent brain" . Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment . 9 : 449–461. doi : 10.2147/NDT.S39776 . PMC 3621648 . PMID 23579318 .

^ Niel, Clara (October 2020). "Takoma Park is one of five cities where minors can vote. And young voters are turning out" .

^ Elder, Glen H. Jr. 1985. "Perspectives on the life course." op. 23–49 in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, 1968–1980 , ed. Glen H. Elder Jr. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

^ Settersten, Richard A. 1999. Lives in Time and Place: The Problems and Promises of Developmental Science. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company. [ page needed ]

^ Ryff, Carol D. 1985. "The Subjective Experience of Life-Span Transitions." In Gender and the life course , by Alice S. Rossi , 97–113. New York: Adine.

^ Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (1998). "Learning to Stand Alone: The Contemporary American Transition to Adulthood in Cultural and Historical Context". Human Development . 41 (5/6): 295–315. doi : 10.1159/000022591 . JSTOR 26763368 . S2CID 143862036 .

^ Levinson, Daniel J. 1978. The Seasons of a Man's Life. New York: Knopf. [ page needed ]

^ Shanahan, Michael J. (August 2000). "Pathways to Adulthood in Changing Societies: Variability and Mechanisms in Life Course Perspective". Annual Review of Sociology . 26 (1): 667–692. doi : 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.667 . JSTOR 223461 .

^ Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (2003). "Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood Among Emerging Adults in American Ethnic Groups". New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development . 2003 (100): 63–76. doi : 10.1002/cd.75 . PMID 12955983 .

^ Jump up to: a b Aronson, Pamela (February 2008). "The Markers and Meanings of Growing Up: Contemporary Young Women's Transition From Adolescence to Adulthood" . Gender & Society . 22 (1): 56–82. doi : 10.1177/0891243207311420 . PMC 2312095 . PMID 18418470 .

^ Barrett, Anne E. (March 2003). "Socioeconomic Status and Age Identity: The Role of Dimensions of Health in the Subjective Construction of Age" . The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences . 58 (2): S101–S109. doi : 10.1093/geronb/58.2.s101 . PMID 12646599 .

^ Barrett, Anne E. (May 2005). "Gendered experiences in midlife: Implications for age identity". Journal of Aging Studies . 19 (2): 163–183. doi : 10.1016/j.jaging.2004.05.002 .

^ Furstenberg, Frank F. Jr. , Rubén G. Rumbaut , and Richard A. Settersten Jr. 2005. "On the Frontier of Adulthood: Emerging Themes and New Directions." In On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, Research, and Public Policy , by Richard A. Settersten Jr., Frank F. Furstenburg Jr., and Rubén G. Rumbaut, 3–25. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

^ Shanahan, Michael J., Erik J. Porfeli, Jeylan T. Mortimer, and Lance D. Erickson. 2005. "Subjective Age Identity and the Transition to Adulthood: When do Adolescents Become Adults?" In On the Frontier of Adulthood: Theory, Research, and Public Policy , by Richard A. Settersten Jr., Frank F. Furstenburg Jr., and Rubén G. Rumbaut, 225–255. Chicago: University of Chicago.

^ Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen. 2004. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from Late Teens through the Twenties . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [ page needed ]

^ Settersten, Richard A. 2011. "Becoming Adult: Meanings and Markers for Young Americans." In Coming of Age in America: The Transition to Adulthood in the Twenty-First Century , by Mary C. Waters, Patrick J. Carr, Maria J. Kefalas, and Jennifer Holdaway, 169–190. Berkeley: University of California Press.

^ "Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, PhD" . www.apa.org . Retrieved 2020-12-13 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Munsey, Christopher (June 2006). "Emerging adults: The in-between age" . Monitor on Psychology . Vol. 37. American Psychological Association. p. 68 . Retrieved 2020-12-13 .

^ "canon 1083, §1" .

^ Donelson, Elaine (1999). "Psychology of religion and adolescents in the United States: Past to present". Journal of Adolescence . 22 (2): 187–204. doi : 10.1006/jado.1999.0212 . PMID 10089119 .

^ Lee, Bo Hyeong Jane; Pearce, Lisa D.; Schorpp, Kristen M. (September 2017). "Religious Pathways from Adolescence to Adulthood" . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion . 56 (3): 678–689. doi : 10.1111/jssr.12367 . PMC 5912683 . PMID 29706663 .



Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)
William James (1842–1910)
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)
Carl Jung (1875–1961)
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
Clark L. Hull (1884–1952)
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947)
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
J. P. Guilford (1897–1987)
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Donald O. Hebb (1904–1985)
Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001)
Harry Harlow (1905–1981)
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Neal E. Miller (1909–2002)
Jerome Bruner (1915–2016)
Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996)
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997)
Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001)
David McClelland (1917–1998)
Leon Festinger (1919–1989)
George A. Miller (1920–2012)
Richard Lazarus (1922–2002)
Stanley Schachter (1922–1997)
Robert Zajonc (1923–2008)
Albert Bandura (1925–2021)
Roger Brown (1925–1997)
Endel Tulving (b. 1927)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987)
Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)
Ulric Neisser (1928–2012)
Jerome Kagan (1929–2021)
Walter Mischel (1930–2018)
Elliot Aronson (b. 1932)
Daniel Kahneman (b. 1934)
Paul Ekman (b. 1934)
Michael Posner (b. 1936)
Amos Tversky (1937–1996)
Bruce McEwen (1938–2020)
Larry Squire (b. 1941)
Richard E. Nisbett (b. 1941)
Martin Seligman (b. 1942)
Ed Diener (1946–2021)
Shelley E. Taylor (b. 1946)
John Anderson (b. 1947)
Ronald C. Kessler (b. 1947)
Joseph E. LeDoux (b. 1949)
Richard Davidson (b. 1951)
Susan Fiske (b. 1952)
Roy Baumeister (b. 1953)

Biologically , an adult is an organism that has reached sexual maturity . In human context, the term adult has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a " minor ", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as independent, self-sufficient , and responsible . The typical age of attaining legal adulthood is 18, although definition may vary by legal rights, country, and psychological development.

Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development . Definitions of adulthood are often inconsistent and contradictory; a person may be biologically an adult, and have adult behavior, but still be treated as a child if they are under the legal age of majority. Conversely, one may legally be an adult but possess none of the maturity and responsibility that may define an adult character.

In different cultures there are events that relate passing from being a child to becoming an adult or coming of age . This often encompasses the passing a series of tests to demonstrate that a person is prepared for adulthood, or reaching a specified age, sometimes in conjunction with demonstrating preparation. Most modern societies determine legal adulthood based on reaching a legally specified age without requiring a demonstration of physical maturity or preparation for adulthood.

Historically and cross-culturally, adulthood has been determined primarily by the start of puberty (the appearance of secondary sex characteristics such as menstruation and the development of breasts in women, ejaculation , the development of facial hair, and a deeper voice in men, and pubic hair in both sexes). [1] In the past, a person usually moved from the status of child directly to the status of adult, often with this shift being marked by some type of coming-of-age test or ceremony. [2] During the Industrial Revolution, children went to work as soon as they could in order to help provide for their family. There was not a huge emphasis on school or education in general. Many children could get a job and were not required to have experience as adults are nowadays.

After the social construct of adolescence was created, [3] adulthood split into two forms: biological adulthood and social adulthood. Thus, there are now two primary forms of adults: biological adults (people who have attained reproductive ability, are fertile, or who evidence secondary sex characteristics) and social adults (people who are recognized by their culture or law as being adults). Depending on the context, adult can indicate either definition. Another aspect of adulthood that is relatively new is psychological functioning. According to Jeffrey Arnett, adults can make financial decisions on their own, are financially independent, and are able to make difficult life decisions on their own.

Although few or no established dictionaries provide a definition for the two word term biological adult, the first definition of adult in multiple dictionaries includes "the stage of the life cycle of an animal after reproductive capacity has been attained". [4] [5] Thus, the base definition of the word adult is the period beginning at physical sexual maturity, which occurs sometime after the onset of puberty. Although this is the primary definition of the base word "adult", the term is also frequently used to refer to social adults. The two-word term biological adult stresses or clarifies that the original definition, based on physical maturity (i.e. having reached reproductive competency), is being used. [6]

The time of puberty varies from child to child, but usually begins around 10 or 11 years old. Girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11, and boys at age 11 or 12. [7] [8] [9] Girls generally complete puberty by 15–17, and boys by age 16 or 17. [9] [10] Nutrition, genetics and environment also usually play a part in the onset of puberty. [11] Girls will go through a growth spurt and gain weight in several areas of their body. Boys will go through similar spurts in growth though it usually not in a similar style or time frame. This is due to the natural processes of puberty, but genetics also plays a part in how much weight they gain or how much taller they get. [12]

One recent area of debate within the science of brain development is the most likely chronological age for full mental maturity , or indeed, if such an age even exists. Common claims repeated in the media (based upon interpretations of imaging data), suggest an "end-point" of 25 or 30 years, referring to the prefrontal cortex as one area that may not yet be fully mature at the age of 18. [13] [14] These interpretations, and their implications for impulse control in teenagers have been disputed by many authors working within the field. [15] [16] [17] [18]

Legally, adulthood typically means that one has reached the age of majority – when parents lose parental rights and responsibilities regarding the person concerned. Depending on one's jurisdiction, the age of majority may or may not be set independently of and should not be confused with the minimum ages applicable to other activities, such as engaging in a contract , marriage , voting , having a job , serving in the military , buying/possessing firearms , driving , traveling abroad, involvement with alcoholic beverages , smoking , sexual activity , gambling , being a model or actor in pornography , running for President , etc. Admission of a young person to a place may be restricted because of danger for that person, concern that the place may lead the person to immoral behavior, or because of the risk that the young person cause
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