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He became king under the tutelage of Samuel, a highly-respected prophet of the Israelite God, Yahweh. At some points during his reign, the biblical narrative depicted him as, at least, mentally unstable, if not decidedly insane. None, however proves adequate or appropriate to encompass the complexity of his behavior. The previous explanations of the psychological disorder that plagued Saul, the first king of Israel, have focused on depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, hysteria, and bipolar disorder. The associated symptoms, however, have been vague and, in some cases, apparently unrepresentative of psychological nosology or, in general, they fail to conform to the prevailing nomenclature. Probably as a result, its portrayal in the psychological literature has been scant. On a different but relevant level, the study also demonstrates the feasibility of common endeavors between the scientific and theological communities. Keeping in view the reality of the instructive or illuminating value of classical stories, the description of the circumstances and deportment of a king called Saul provides much fodder for analysis by the psychiatric and psychological community, even today. Admittedly, these choices are perhaps the most relevant, given the available officially described mental disorders. Saul displayed heroic characteristics in many of the earlier battles he fought, showing both prowess and inspired leadership. Only a relative handful of commentators have discussed the probable mental disorder of Saul. These include manic episodes with psychotic phases, major depression with psychotic features, mixed episodes, dysthymic disorder, and nonspecific psychotic disorder. The following authors are representative of this group:. This omission seems to weaken their claim. The bible passages, however, clearly present Saul as wary and fearful of David—not sad or depressed. For a man used to wartime mass killings, that of Agag would hardly rank anywhere on the traumatic scale. The author did not provide a list of symptoms to support any of the presented conditions. For example, the symptoms with a high probability of indicating a DSM-IV diagnosis of unipolar depression include the following, all occurring for more than a two-week period:. Recurrence of unipolar depression is defined as either a change in polarity from depression or an interval of at least 2 months without manic symptoms. DSM IV diagnostic criteria for bipolar affective disorder require a specification of one of six types:. As a result, several disorders are generated, which would require a thorough diagnostic work-up, to confirm their status. Since Saul is no longer alive, the multiplicity of psychological conditions attributed to him is, at best, contentious. Establishing the likely mental status of Saul cannot be based on, apparently, just a clustering of his behaviours to which psychological names are attached. In other words, to assign a specific diagnostic label, one needs to identify the known symptoms that the individual is exhibiting. If the origin of those symptoms is unknown as may be said of the DSM classifications , then there is no telling whether two symptoms have the same emotional origin or not. According to Bickersteth et al. Knowing their dimension-based etiology, however, would provide a traceable line of sight from defining diagnosing to treating these emotional problems. Consequently, the labels borrowed from the DSM by writers may not legitimately apply to the selected behaviours of Saul that are under discussion. They also usually want to control situations, including how others behave around them, and can change very quickly from a normal and calm demeanour to being markedly angry, depressed, or anxious. Usually, however, this kind of chronic anxiety tends to make the sufferer moody, irritable and impatient and create a craving for acknowledgement and praise, often, in addition to self-promotion. To them, the most persuasive source of information tends to be their own thinking regardless of the validity of objective sources. Saul may have faced work-stress as Huisman suggested; but his behavior did not appear to indicate a withdrawn, confused and lethargic leader. Quite the contrary, as the following passage reveals. He seemed at one period of his life to be alert, active and vigorously defending the Israelites and their territory:. And wherever he turned, he was victorious. It seems that it was perhaps later in life when his anxiety had become worse that his bizarre behaviors became prominent, although there were signs much earlier. According to the bible, God Yahweh did not originate the idea of a human king for the Hebrews later to be known as Israel or the Israelites and considered the request for an earthly king as tantamount to His being rejected by the nation He had chosen as His people. Nonetheless, as one strand of the biblical record has it, Yahweh shepherded the selection and coronation of Saul, the first king of Israel by the following process:. And finally, Saul, son of Kish was chosen from among them. But when they looked for him, he had disappeared! No one in all of Israel is like him! Yahweh gave the prophet, Samuel, the task of commissioning Saul to destroy the Amalekites, issuing these precise instructions to Saul:. Samuel tries to find Saul and we are told:. Through his rhetorical question, Samuel confronts Saul with objective facts that cannot be denied. So, Saul admitted:. Saul employs an apparent subterfuge of blaming the army, of which he is the leader. Saul, however, doubles down on his irrational perspective:. I brought back King Agag, but I destroyed everyone else. Realizing he has been caught in his lies and prevarications, Saul finally comes clean. In admitting his disobedience, Saul reveals the crux of his deviant behaviour, namely: fear more accurately, chronic anxiety. As Saul asks for forgiveness, however, he seems to continue denying his plight, being concerned with maintaining his image. He wants Samuel to help him save face with God and the people! Interestingly, they propose music therapy that would be considered a suitable treatment even in contemporary times, as a treatment component Chen, Indeed, the treatment proves to be effective. Music therapy tends to facilitate both Thought Replacement TR and relaxation. TR allows the sufferer to redirect their thoughts away from the stressor; relaxation enables calmness. The superior army of the Philistines led by a formidable giant, Goliath, is massed against the Israelites, whose leader is the cowering king, Saul. We learn:. It would be expected, usually, that the army leader or captain would respond to such a challenge. This time, however, according to the biblical account:. The youth, David, who was being groomed as the as next the leader of Israel showed more bravery than the king:. Therefore, David became an existential threat to Saul! David was playing the harp, as he did each day. But Saul had a spear in his hand, and he suddenly hurled it at David, intending to pin him to the wall. When Saul recognized this, he became even more afraid of him. His fear of David continued to escalate and we are finally told:. Saul hatched yet another plot to get rid of David, now considered his rival and enemy. Notably, SOPS individuals are greatly threatened by those they see as competitors. According to the biblical account:. But Saul sent the troops back to get David. On the other hand, it may safely be assumed that her father did. More often than not, a code of conduct is espoused, practically, from situation to situation, to the extent that adherence offers safety. This is a strategic position of safety, allowing the anxious individual one less source behind his back to worry about, from which he may be in danger. The story continues:. Now go and get him so I can kill him! So, at last, Jonathan realized that his father was really determined to kill David. People with a serious anxiety disorder as Saul portrays, tend to expect their associates to think like them and endorse their behaviour, uncritically. The drastic change in Saul after David came into his life brings to light the enormous power that chronic, out-of-control anxiety can have over the sufferer, which could elicit extreme behavior in that sufferer; in this case, it was as serious as committing attempted murder. As was seen above, Saul, the king, aimed a spear at his son, ostensibly because Jonathan did not take his side against David. Her reaction reflects a PCP characteristic suggestive of a fragile self-esteem. At this later point, he found it convenient to act in renouncement of that code of behaviour. Originating in a North American study Bickersteth et al. Even the circumstances of his death need proper knowledge of this psychological problem, to suggest, for example, an answer to the question: How did Saul die? Did he commit suicide, as a few have stated? Notably, he endorses the anxiety hypothesis in this comment. If the biblical record about Saul had ended in 1 Samuel Chapter 31, probably, his suicide obituary would be unchallenged. It was not the end of the account of his death, however. Moreover, the armourbearer would still be alive and, given the biblical detail, would not have stood by watching the Amalekite kill Saul and not defend or avenge his master; nor would he have not intervened if he had seen Saul about to kill himself. Only knowing that the king was really dead would his armourbearer have committed suicide or possibly been killed by the Philistines. As such both were dead when the Amalekite encountered them. Besides, what was his role in fierce combat, with arrows flying? Moreover, the Amalekites were ancient enemies of Israel whom God condemned to annihilation through Samuel and were a group that David recently destroyed. Therefore, far from gaining honour or a reward, the Amalekite, it seems, only succeeded in getting himself killed. So how did Saul die, if not by suicide, his armour-bearer or the Amalekite? It appears very plausible that when, according to the bible, the Philistine archers caught up with Saul 1 Samuel 3 , their arrows did not merely wound him seriously but precipitated his death! None of these arguments is convincing. Admittedly, this diagnosis could not have been used before now, being newly unveiled Bickersteth et al. So, at this point, anxiety disorder seems the only sufficient construct. Nonetheless, other writers seem to put much weight on bipolar disorder; but is this justified? On one occasion Saul throws a spear at David twice and on another, at his son Jonathan in out-of-control rage; he calms down when David plays the harp. In context, these behaviors do not appear to demonstrate a bipolar, hypomanic or depressed mood. His relentless pursuit of David, using every resource at his disposal, even ordering his soldiers, at one point, to bring David to him, so he can kill him, except by a stretch, is not suggestive of a bipolar disorder or of overwhelming sadness. Firstly, apart from prophesying speaking or praising enthusiastically under direct inspiration from God , Saul showed almost none of the cardinal symptoms associated with the DSM disorder American Psychiatric Association, In other words, flight of ideas usually seen as a mania characteristic , during which the affected individual tended to jump from one thought topic to another, does not seem to occur during this prophetic state. Samuel the prophet described the first instance as divinely ordained and on the second occasion, when Saul and his soldiers were mesmerized, Samuel was acting as overseer or leading the prophesying, also under divine control. To answer this question, it appears, unfortunately, that more research on music therapy and BD is needed Meissner, ; Krauss, This paucity of information, in itself, testifies to a lack of proven efficacy of music as a BD therapeutic approach, which, otherwise, for such a complex, chronic, and often lifelong and intransigent disease, would be expected to be in much more popular use and studied much more. Presenting as timid from the outset of his reign, Saul faced situations, which made his kingship seem ill-fated. In many ways, his actions produced unfortunate repercussions, usually due to his continued state of fear and anxiety. So then, why did Saul? His tactics and attempts to eliminate this strong, though innocent contender to his throne only served to increase his perceived vulnerability and magnify his anxiety. As we hear:. In the end, however, beside himself from the fear and anxiety of annihilation, Saul engaged the Philistines in a war that became his last! As he began his reign, so he ended it, full of fear and anxiety. From a certain point of view, intellectual curiosity per se, if not the popularity of this biblical account, makes it a target of study. Moreover, from our perspective, an implicit intellectual partnership is revealed in which biblical narrative and psychological theory work together to give meaning to the events of everyday life at any point at which they intersect in history. The practicality of such a convergence, calls into account the need for a rapprochement between science and theology. Perhaps, it is oversimplifying the issue to view a resolution to the problem as requiring proponents on either side only to accept that each side has hegemony only within their respective fields; but not beyond. This acceptance would be based on another level of reconciliation, namely, that both theology and science are independent ways of knowing—portals to understanding—our world and that neither is superior nor subordinate to the other. Such elucidation is useful to both theology and science, because it opens the way to more frequent encounters between the two, cultivates mutual understanding, and permits the pursuit of a common purpose! Future research should assist in clarifying any shortcomings in this study and shed light on the importance of making biblical themes more readily understandable by the general public. All rights reserved. What Are Bipolar Disorders? Clinical Case Studies, 2, Psychology, 12, Psychology, 9, NeuroQuantology, 16, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61, Bipolar Affective Disorder. StatPearls Publishing. Musical Offerings, 10, Article 2. Medical News Today. The British Journal of Psychiatry, , Home Journals Article. Albert, Canada. DOI: Share and Cite:. Bickersteth, P. Open Journal of Philosophy , 13 , Introduction Keeping in view the reality of the instructive or illuminating value of classical stories, the description of the circumstances and deportment of a king called Saul provides much fodder for analysis by the psychiatric and psychological community, even today. Literature Review Only a relative handful of commentators have discussed the probable mental disorder of Saul. For example, the symptoms with a high probability of indicating a DSM-IV diagnosis of unipolar depression include the following, all occurring for more than a two-week period: - Difficulty concentrating, making decisions and thinking. DSM IV diagnostic criteria for bipolar affective disorder require a specification of one of six types: - Bipolar I disorder, single manic episode. Method 3. Anxiety Disorder Is Displayed Early in the Narrative According to the bible, God Yahweh did not originate the idea of a human king for the Hebrews later to be known as Israel or the Israelites and considered the request for an earthly king as tantamount to His being rejected by the nation He had chosen as His people. Saul on a Rampage of Murder As was seen above, Saul, the king, aimed a spear at his son, ostensibly because Jonathan did not take his side against David. Discussion 4. Conflicts of Interest No conflict of interest to disclose. References \[ 1 \] American Psychiatric Association Journals Menu. Contact us. All Rights Reserved. American Psychiatric Association Ben-Noun, L. Chen, R. Huisman, M. Jain, A. Krauss, Z. Meissner, M. Stein, G. Williams, G.

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