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Ecstasy (MDMA) Thessaloniki

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Ecstasy (MDMA) Thessaloniki

Greek police capture an array of narcotics from Mykonos kingpin (PHOTOS)

Ecstasy (MDMA) Thessaloniki

Analysing communal wastewaters for drugs and their metabolic products in order to estimate their consumption in the community is a developing field, involving scientists working in different research areas, including analytical chemistry, physiology and biochemistry, sewage engineering, spatial epidemiology and statistics, and conventional drug epidemiology. This page presents the findings from studies since Data from all studies may be explored through an interactive tool, and a detailed an analayis of the findings of the most recent study in is presented. A PDF version of a selection of the information on this page is available in our Publications database. See our wastewater analysis and drugs hub page for more information and resources on this topic. In this section you can explore the data from the most recent study in , as well as from previous studies. Each study reveals a picture of distinct geographical and temporal patterns of drug use across European cities. Clicking on a symbol in the graph or the map will show more detailled information for a given water treatment plant. You can also select a site from the dropdown menu. Please see the notes in the Source data section which include general notes, substance specific notes, as well as city-specific remarks. The findings of the largest European project to date in the emerging science of wastewater analysis are taken up in this section. The results provide a valuable snapshot of the drug flow through the cities involved, revealing marked geographical variations. Wastewater analysis is a rapidly developing scientific discipline with the potential for monitoring real-time data on geographical and temporal trends in illicit drug use. Originally used in the s to monitor the environmental impact of liquid household waste, the method has since been used to estimate illicit drug consumption in different cities Daughton, ; van Nuijs et al. It involves sampling a source of wastewater, such as a sewage influent to a wastewater treatment plant. This allows scientists to estimate the quantity of drugs consumed by a community by measuring the levels of illicit drugs and their metabolites excreted in urine Zuccato et al. In , a Europe-wide network Sewage analysis CORe group — Europe SCORE was established with the aim of standardising the approaches used for wastewater analysis and coordinating international studies through the establishment of a common protocol of action. The first activity of the SCORE group was a Europe-wide investigation, performed in in 19 European cities, which allowed the first ever wastewater study of regional differences in illicit drug use in Europe Thomas et al. That study also included the first intercalibration exercise for the evaluation of the quality of the analytical data and allowed a comprehensive characterisation of the major uncertainties of the approach Castiglioni et al. Following the success of this initial study, comparable studies were undertaken over the following years, covering 82 cities and 18 countries in the European Union in A standard protocol and a common quality control exercise were used in all locations, which made it possible to directly compare illicit drug loads in Europe over a one-week period during ten consecutive years van Nuijs et al. Because of the impact of the COVID pandemic, for the wastewater monitoring campaign, raw hour composite samples were collected during a single week between March and May for most cities, rather than only during March, as is usually the case. These samples were analysed for the urinary biomarkers i. In addition, the samples were analysed for the main urinary metabolites i. The specific metabolite of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, was found to be unstable in wastewater. Consequently, the only alternative is to use morphine, although it is not a specific biomarker and can also be excreted as a result of therapeutic use. The project findings revealed distinct geographical and temporal patterns of drug use across European cities see Interactive: explore the data from the study. The annual SCORE wastewater sampling presented here, from 82 cities, showed that, overall, the loads of the different stimulant drugs detected in wastewater in varied considerably across study locations. The BE loads observed in wastewater indicate that cocaine use remains highest in western and southern European cities, in particular in cities in Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. Very low levels were found in the majority of the eastern European cities, with the most recent data showing some signs of increase. The loads of amphetamine detected in wastewater varied considerably across study locations, with the highest levels being reported in cities in the north and east of Europe, as in previous years. Amphetamine was found at much lower levels in cities in the south of Europe. In contrast, methamphetamine use, generally low and historically concentrated in Czechia and Slovakia, was also present in Cyprus, the east of Germany, Spain and northern Europe. The observed methamphetamine loads in the other locations were very low to negligible. The study highlighted differences between these cities within the same country, which may be explained in part by the different social and demographic characteristics of the cities universities, nightlife areas and age distribution of the population , Some of these differences were related to the pandemic.. In the large majority of countries with multiple study locations, BE, methamphetamine and MDMA loads were higher in large cities compared to smaller locations. In addition to geographical patterns, wastewater analysis can detect fluctuations in weekly patterns of illicit drug use. More than three-quarters of cities show higher loads of BE and MDMA in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, although much of the night-time economy was closed in Europe in Thirty-three cities have participated in at least five of the annual wastewater monitoring campaigns since This allows for time trend analysis of drug consumption based on wastewater testing. Any comparison with previous years and between cities should take into consideration the fact that wastewater samples in may have been collected when local lockdowns were in place, which might have impacted on both drug availability and drug-using habits. Cannabis use appeared to have been less affected during the pandemic lockdown periods, although differences between and within countries existed. In wastewater, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far. Although it is excreted in a low percentage and more research is still needed Causanilles et al. Findings from wastewater analyses do not show large changes during when compared with data. Bubble map showing relative cannabis metabolotie loads in wastewater. Highest bubbles appear in western and southern European cities, in particular in cities in Croatia, France, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal. To examine the data, use the data explorer , also available on this page. See the source data. Very low levels were found in the majority of the eastern European cities, but the most recent data show signs of increase. Bubble map showing relative cocaine metabolotie loads in wastewater. Biggest bubbles appear in western and southern European cities, in particular in cities in Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. A relatively stable picture of cocaine use was observed between and in most cities. In , there were initial signs that this pattern was changing, with increases observed in the majority of cities each year since then. In , trends diverged in the participating cities, with further increases in use in 19 of the 49 cities with data for and , and 16 cities reporting a decrease. An overall increase is seen for all the 10 cities with data for both and Trend graph. A relatively stable picture of cocaine use can be observed between and In , there are initial signs that this pattern is changing, with increases observed in the majority of cities each year since then. These 8 cities were selected owing to the availability of annual data from to In the majority of countries with multiple study locations, BE cocaine loads were higher in large cities compared to smaller locations. More than three-quarters of cities show higher loads of BE in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, which may reflect a pattern of more recreational use. Bubble map showing relative MDMA residue loads in wastewater. Highest loads can be seen in cities in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Slovenia. Until recently, general population surveys in many countries showed that MDMA prevalence was declining from peak levels attained in the early to mids. In recent years, however, the picture has remained mixed with no clear trends. Where prevalence is high, this may reflect MDMA no longer being a niche or subcultural drug limited to dance clubs and parties, but now being used by a broader range of young people in mainstream nightlife settings, including bars and house parties. Looking at longer-term trends in wastewater analysis, in 7 out of the 9 cities with data for both and MDMA loads were higher in than in Sharp increases were observed in some cities, including Amsterdam, Eindhoven and Antwerp. In most cases the loads increased between , and have fluctuated after this. In , possibly due to the fact that in the majority of countries nightlife was largely closed for long periods, almost half of the cities 24 of 49 reported a decrease with 18 reporting an increase. In the large majority of countries, MDMA loads were higher in large cities compared to smaller locations. Also, more than three-quarters of cities showed higher loads of MDMA in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, reflecting the predominantly recreational use of ecstasy, although night-time economy was mostly closed. Amphetamine and methamphetamine, two closely related stimulants, are both consumed in Europe, although amphetamine is much more commonly used. Methamphetamine consumption has historically been restricted to Czechia and, more recently, Slovakia, although recent years have seen increases in use in other countries. The loads of amphetamine detected in wastewater varied considerably across study locations, with the highest levels reported in cities in the north and east of Europe. Bubble map showing relative amphetamine residue loads in wastewater. Highest loads can be seen in cities in the north and east of Europe. In contrast, methamphetamine use, generally low and historically concentrated in Czechia and Slovakia, now appears to be present also in Cyprus, the east of Germany, Spain and several northern European countries Denmark, Finland, Lithuania, Norway. Bubble map showing relative methamphetamine residue loads in wastewater. Overall, the data related to amphetamine and methamphetamine from the ten monitoring campaigns showed no major changes in the general patterns of use observed. In , the most recent data show that 20 of the 48 cities with data for and reported an increase for amphetamine and 19 cities a decrease. For methamphetamine use, the data show that 15 of the 50 cities with data for and reported an increase and 21 cities a decrease in the loads found. Peak values are at the extremes of the graph — in and and Values for years between and are considerably lower. These 5 cities were selected owing to the availability of annual data from to In , amphetamine and methamphetamine use were found to be distributed more evenly over the whole week than in previous years, possibly reflecting the use of these drugs being associated with more regular consumption by a cohort of high-risk users. Because different types of information are provided by wastewater analysis collective consumption of substances within a community and by established monitoring tools, such as population surveys prevalence in the last month or year , a direct comparison of the data is difficult. However, the patterns and trends being detected by wastewater analysis are largely, but not completely, in line with the analyses coming from other monitoring tools. For example, both seizure and wastewater data present a picture of a geographically divergent stimulant market in Europe, where cocaine is more prevalent in the south and west, while amphetamines are more common in central and northern countries EMCDDA, Similar results are also found in data coming from population surveys on drug use. While the general pattern detected in wastewater is in line with established monitoring tools, there are some exceptions. Data from established indicators show that methamphetamine use have historically been restricted to Czechia, and more recently also Slovakia, although recent years have seen increased use in other countries EMCDDA, a. These findings have been confirmed by recent wastewater-based epidemiology, with the highest methamphetamine loads found in Czech, Slovak, German and Finnish cities. Similarly, studies based on self-reported drug use and those using wastewater data both point towards the same weekly variations in use, with stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine being primarily used at weekend music events and in celebratory contexts Tossmann et al. A limited but steadily increasing number of studies have been published comparing drug use estimates obtained through wastewater analysis and estimates provided by epidemiological surveys EMCDDA, b; van Wel et al. While in only one reported study tried to evaluate sewage analysis alongside traditional epidemiological techniques Reid et al. A first study, performed in Oslo, Norway, and published in , compared the results from three different datasets a general population survey, a roadside survey and wastewater analysis Reid et al. Other studies compare and correlate wastewater-based consumption estimates of illicit drugs with other data sources, including self-reported data Been et al. The majority of comparative studies have been carried out within European countries, including Belgium van Wel et al. Outside Europe, in recent years studies have been published comparing wastewater-based estimates with other data sources in China Du et al. These examples confirm the promising future of wastewater-based epidemiology as a complementary approach to obtain a more accurate and balanced picture of substance use within different communities. In order to check the quality and accuracy of data, further comparisons between wastewater analysis and data obtained through other indicators are needed. Wastewater analysis offers an interesting complementary data source for monitoring the quantities of illicit drugs used at the population level, but it cannot provide information on prevalence and frequency of use, main classes of users and purity of the drugs. Additional challenges arise from uncertainties associated with the behaviour of the selected biomarkers in the sewer, different back-calculation methods and different approaches to estimate the size of the population being tested Castiglioni et al. The caveats in selecting the analytical targets for heroin, for example, make monitoring this drug in wastewater more complicated compared to other substances Been et al. Also, the purity of street products fluctuates unpredictably over time and in different locations. Furthermore, translating the total consumed amounts into the corresponding number of average doses is complicated, as drugs can be taken by different routes and in amounts that vary widely, and purity levels fluctuate Zuccato et al. Efforts are being made to enhance wastewater monitoring approaches. For example, work has been undertaken on overcoming a major source of uncertainty related to estimating the number of people present in a sewer catchment at the time of sample collection. This involved using data from mobile devices to better estimate the dynamic population size for wastewater-based epidemiology Thomas et al. Wastewater-based epidemiology has established itself as an important tool for monitoring illicit drug use and future directions for wastewater research have been explored EMCDDA, b. First, wastewater analysis has been proposed as a tool to address some of the challenges related to the dynamic new psychoactive substances NPS market. This includes the large number of individual NPS, the relatively low prevalence of use and the fact that many of the users are actually unaware of exactly which substances they are using. A technique has been established to identify NPS that involves the collection and analysis of pooled urine from stand-alone portable urinals from nightclubs, city centres and music festivals, thereby providing timely data on exactly which NPS are currently in use at a particular location Archer et al. The project applied innovative analytical chemical and epidemiological methods and a robust risk-assessment procedure to improve the identification of NPS, to assess risks, and to estimate the extent and patterns of use in specific groups e. Second, in addition to estimating illicit drug use, wastewater-based epidemiology has been successfully applied in recent years to providing detailed information on the use and misuse of alcohol Boogaerts et al. Furthermore, wastewater analysis can potentially provide information on health and illness indicators within a community Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. Third, the potential for wastewater-based epidemiology to be used as an outcome measurement tool, in particular in the evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions that target drug supply e. Close collaboration between the different stakeholders involved, including epidemiologists, wastewater experts and legal authorities, is highly recommended in order to start examining these potential wastewater-based epidemiology applications EMCDDA, b. High levels of MDMA were recorded during the whole monitoring period in one city in the Netherlands, suggesting continuous discharges of unconsumed MDMA from sources within the wastewater catchment area, indicating drug production was taking place in this region. Fourth, by back-calculating the daily sewer loads of target residues, wastewater analysis can provide total consumption estimates, and specific efforts are now being directed towards finding the best procedures for estimating annual averages. It is envisaged that findings from wastewater analysis can help to further develop work in this area. Finally, new methods such as enantiomeric profiling have been developed to determine if mass loads of drugs in wastewater originated from consumption or from the disposal of unused drugs or production waste. It is now important to assess the possible utility of wastewater analysis to report on drug supply dynamics, including synthetic drug production Emke et al. For example, recent malfunctioning of a small wastewater treatment plant in the Netherlands was caused by direct discharges in the sewage system of chemical waste from a drug production site. Further analysis revealed the actual synthesis process used to manufacture the corresponding drugs. The study confirmed that the chemical waste from the illegal manufacturing of stimulants will result in a specific chemical fingerprint that can be tracked in wastewater and used for forensic purposes. Such profiles can be used to identify drug production or synthesis waste disposal in the wastewater catchment area Emke et al. Wastewater analysis has demonstrated its potential as a useful complement to established monitoring tools in the drugs area. It has some clear advantages over other approaches as it is not subject to response and non-response bias and can better identify the true spectrum of drugs being consumed, as users are often unaware of the actual mix of substances they take. This tool also has the potential to provide timely information in short timeframes on geographical and temporal trends. As a method, wastewater analysis has moved from being an experimental technique to being a new method in the epidemiological toolkit. Its rapid ability to detect new trends can help target public health programmes and policy initiatives at specific groups of people and the different drugs they are using. Archer, J. Archer, E. Bade, R. Baz-Lomba, J. Been, F. Bijlsma, L. Boogaerts, T. Bruno, R. Castiglioni, S. Causanilles, A. Daglioglu, N. Daughton, C. Du, P. Emke, E. Kasprzyk-Hordern, B. Kinyua, J. Krizman, I. Krizman-Matasic, I. Lai, F. Mardal, M. Mastroianni, N. Moslah, B. Nguyen, H. Reid, M. Senta, I. Thomaidis, N. Thomas, K. Tossmann, P. Tscharke, B. Yang, Z. Zuccato, E. In addition to the glossary below, see also Frequently-asked questions on wastewater-based epidemiology and drugs. Traces of drugs consumed will end up in the sewer network either unchanged or as a mixture of metabolites. Metabolites, the end products of metabolism, are the substances produced when the body breaks drugs down. Wastewater analysis is based on the fact that we excrete traces in our urine of almost everything we consume, including illicit drugs. The target drug residue is what remains in the wastewater after excretion and is used to quantify the consumption of illicit drugs in the population. Analytical chemists look for urinary biomarkers measurable characteristics to calculate population drug use in wastewater samples, which can be the parent drug i. Enantiomeric profiling is an analytical chemistry technique used to determine if studied drugs in wastewater originate from consumption or direct disposal eq. It is based on the fact that chiral molecules if only one chiral centre is present exist as two enantiomers opposite forms which are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. As the enantiomeric ratio will change after human metabolism, the enantiomeric fraction can be used to determine whether the studied drugs in wastewater originate from consumption. In order to estimate levels of drug use from wastewater, researchers attempt first to identify and quantify drug residues, and then to back-calculate the amount of the illicit drugs used by the population served by the sewage treatment plants Castiglioni et al. This approach involves several steps see figure. Initially, composite samples of untreated wastewater are collected from the sewers in a defined geographical area. The samples are then analysed to determine the concentrations of the target drug residues. A correction factor for each drug is taken into account as part of the calculation. In a last step, the result is divided by the population served by the wastewater treatment plant, which shows the amount of a substance consumed per day per 1 inhabitants. Population estimates can be calculated using different biological parameters, census data, number of house connections, or the design capacity, but the overall variability of different estimates is generally very high. Although primarily used to study trends in illicit drug consumption in the general population, wastewater analysis has also been applied to small communities, including workplaces, schools Zuccato et al. Using this method in small communities can involve ethical risks Prichard et al. In the SCORE group published ethical guidelines for wastewater-based epidemiology and related fields Prichard et al. The objective of these guidelines is to outline the main potential ethical risks for wastewater research and to propose strategies to mitigate those risks. Home Publications. Wastewater analysis and drugs — a European multi-city study On this page: Introduction Data explorer Analysis Terms and definitions Methods and ethical considerations Find out more Source data. Page last updated: June Introduction Analysing communal wastewaters for drugs and their metabolic products in order to estimate their consumption in the community is a developing field, involving scientists working in different research areas, including analytical chemistry, physiology and biochemistry, sewage engineering, spatial epidemiology and statistics, and conventional drug epidemiology. Data explorer In this section you can explore the data from the most recent study in , as well as from previous studies. Mean: Daily Weekday Weekend. Study year: Interactive is loading. Depending on the speed of your internet connection and the speed of your device, this process may take up to 60 seconds. If after this time, this message is stil displayed, we recommend either trying again later, trying with a different browser. You may also contact us at online\\\\\\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\\\\\]emcdda. Analysis: results from a European multi-city study The findings of the largest European project to date in the emerging science of wastewater analysis are taken up in this section. Wastewater testing in European cities In , a Europe-wide network Sewage analysis CORe group — Europe SCORE was established with the aim of standardising the approaches used for wastewater analysis and coordinating international studies through the establishment of a common protocol of action. Patterns of illicit drug use: geographical and temporal variation key findings The project findings revealed distinct geographical and temporal patterns of drug use across European cities see Interactive: explore the data from the study. Figure 1: relative geographical distribution of cannabis metabolite as detected in European cities, daily mean Bubble map showing relative cannabis metabolotie loads in wastewater. Terms and definitions In addition to the glossary below, see also Frequently-asked questions on wastewater-based epidemiology and drugs. Metabolite Traces of drugs consumed will end up in the sewer network either unchanged or as a mixture of metabolites. Residue Wastewater analysis is based on the fact that we excrete traces in our urine of almost everything we consume, including illicit drugs. Urinary biomarkers Analytical chemists look for urinary biomarkers measurable characteristics to calculate population drug use in wastewater samples, which can be the parent drug i. Enantiomeric profiling Enantiomeric profiling is an analytical chemistry technique used to determine if studied drugs in wastewater originate from consumption or direct disposal eq. Methods and ethical considerations In order to estimate levels of drug use from wastewater, researchers attempt first to identify and quantify drug residues, and then to back-calculate the amount of the illicit drugs used by the population served by the sewage treatment plants Castiglioni et al. Ort, C. No values were corrected with excretion factors. Cities with multiple sewage treatment plants STPs : The numbers or letters in brackets specifies the STPs, which provided data for the corresponding city in this study. Berlin 4 indicates the population-weighted average of four different STPs in the city of Berlin. Values below limit of quantification : Values below the method limit of quantification are indicated as zero. In , European countries experienced the emergence of the coronavirus disease COVID to a different extent and time. Significant differences between and within countries existed in the duration and nature of the COVID de confinement measures and in the dates, which will have had different impacts on drug availability and use for each country. While wastewater analysis provides insights on drug use habits during the COVID pandemic, it also challenges the way the data can be compared with previous years as it should be noted that the participating cities had different lockdown periods and restrictive measures in place. Additional and complementary data are indeed needed to fully understand the impact on the patterns of drug use. The data sets are presented by year and substance. In additionl to data values, a site information table is provided with information on the treatment plants where the measurements were made. Each site is identified with a unique arbitrary ID 'SiteID' which provides information on the location of the site. This ID is refered to in each data table. Substance-specific remarks Benzoylecgonine: this is the main excreted metabolite of cocaine. THC-COOH: this is the main excreted metabolite of cannabis City-specific remarks Berlin: when merging the data for the four plants, it was taken into account the fact that no samples were collected in Berlin M in for Saturday and Sunday, in for Sunday and Monday, in for Saturday; for Berlin R in for Sunday and Monday. Bordeaux : when merging the data for the two plants, it was taken into account the fact that no sample was collected on Wednesday in Bordeaux II in Bratislava: in the method of estimating the population has changed mobile phone connections, including non-permanent residents such as students compared to previous years based on census for permanent residents, de jure population. Erfurt: in no sample was collected on Friday, consequently week and weekend means were calculated respectively on six and three days. Moreover, Eindhoven exhibited very high values for amphetamine in Ort et al. Methamphetamine and amphetamine results are not shown due to abnormal values probably caused by the release of unconsumed substances into the sewer system. Eleusis: in no sample was collected on Tuesday, while samples were collected on two Wednesday; consequently, the weekly averages were calculated using the samples of two Wednesday and no Tuesday. Geneva: in no sample was collected on Sunday, consequently week and weekend means were calculated respectively on six and three days. Hamburg: in no sample was collected on Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, while samples were collected on two Tuesdays and two Thursdays; consequently, the weekly averages were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays, two Thursdays and a Sunday; the weekdays means were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays and one Thursday; the weekend means were calculated using the samples of the Sunday only. Koper: in no sample was collected on Sunday, consequently week and weekend means were calculated respectively on six and three days. Ljubljana: exhibited very high values for MDMA in the sample of Tuesday, which is responsible of a higher weekly and weekdays means. Nevethless, that value was included in the analysis as there were no indications of a problem in the sampling and there was no indication that it was due to the release of unconsumed MDMA into the sewer system. Milan: in no sample was collected on Monday, Wednesday and Thursday, while samples were collected on two Tuesdays; consequently, the weekly averages were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays, a Friday, a Saturday and a Sunday; the weekdays means were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays; the weekend means were calculated using the samples of a Friday, a Saturday and a Sunday only. Saarbrucken: data for derive from the merging of two plants for all substances but methamphetamine, for which values were above the level of quantification in one STP only. Santiago: in no sample was collected on Thursday, while samples were collected on two Tuesdays; consequently the weekly averages were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays and no Thursdays. Gallen: in no sample was collected on Sunday, consequently week and weekend means were calculated respectively on six and three days. In samples were collected during one week in April and one week in October; the results presented are an average of the two weeks. Velenje: in no sample was collected on Thursday, while samples were collected on two Tuesdays; consequently the weekly averages were calculated using the samples of two Tuesdays and no Thursdays. Zagreb: exhibited very high values for amphetamine in the samples of Tuesday and Thursday, which are responsible of the high weekly and weekdays means. Nevethless, those values were included in the analysis as there were no indications of a problem in the sampling and there was no indication that it was due to the release of unconsumed amphetamine into the sewer system. Gallen Hofen St. Gallen Hofen OV Karloy Vary OV Ostrava RWZI Nieuwegein Gallen Hofen 9. Gallen Hofen 7. Gallen Hofen 1. Gallen Hofen 8. Gallen Hofen 3 2. Gallen Hofen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 site30 CH Zurich Gallen Hofen 6. Forensic Toxicology Labs.

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