Dobrna buy coke

__________________________

📍 Verified store!

📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!

__________________________

▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼

▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲

Dobrna buy coke

If you have any questions, please contact our Support team at intentsupport foundryco. Enrich your API response with customizable first-party data attributes for a target account list. Use the interactive interface to build your API query string. This endpoint gives you the ability to personalize your Company API response with first-party data attributes for a specified set of accounts. Fields are limited to characters. Logo size and shape can vary, for this reason we recommend to control the height and width using CSS based on the user needs. Based on ISO standards. To deliver optimum performance to all of our API customers, KickFire balances transaction loads by using rate limits:. Total API Calls per month determines how many requests can be made to an access point without service interruption or price change. Each query over the monthly total is charged at the CPQ rate. Skip to content Ready to get started with your API sandbox? Get your free API key. Domain to IP Address. IP Address to Geo. API Usage. Note: Use the interactive interface to build your API query string. Responses include Success, Not Found, or Error. Integer up to 10 digits data Contains the response main data. Alphanumeric up to characters tradeName The official name by which a company conducts business. Alphanumeric up to characters website The top-level domain name by which a company conducts business. Alphanumeric up to 25 characters employees The low to high count of employees at the company. Alphanumeric up to 6 characters facebook The Facebook username by which a company is identified. Alphanumeric up to characters twitter The Twitter username by which a company is identified. Integer 1 digit confidence The level of identification confidence that an IP address is associated with an account based on event signals and ground truth. Integer 1 digit. Integer up to 10 digits results Indicates the number of results shown. Integer up to 10 digits website The top-level domain name by which a company conducts business. Integer 1 digit data Contains the response main data. Integer up to 20 digits. Alphanumeric up to 25 characters. IP Address to Country. Zip Code to Geolocation. Area Code to Geolocation. Company Logo. Company Name to Website. Primary Top-Level Domain. Related Top-Level Domain. Note: This endpoint is only available for US zip codes. Area Code to Geolocation Endpoint This endpoint detects the geolocation data based on area code. Note: This endpoint is only available for US area codes. Company Logo Endpoint This endpoint provides a company logo based on website. The current code will keep the company logo width no smaller than 50px and no bigger than px. The current code keeps the opacity level to 0. The current code positions the company logo at 10px from the top margin and 10px from the left margin. Company Name to Website Endpoint This endpoint translates company name into website. Your API key or your domain is not matching our records. Please make sure your key is correct and your IP is authorized. Your access point is not authorized to call this endpoint. The API access is denied by server. Please contact support. The API subscription has ended. Ready to get started? Get your free API key External link. Refer to the complete list of Region Values. Refer to the complete list of Country Values. The low to high count of employees at the company. Refer to the complete list of Employee Ranges. Refer to the complete list of Revenue Ranges. Refer to the complete list of SIC Groups. Refer to the complete list of SIC Descriptions. Refer to the complete list of SIC Codes. The level of identification confidence that an IP address is associated with an account based on event signals and ground truth. A request was made of a resource using a request method not supported by that resource; for example, using GET on a form which requires data to be presented via POST.

Our needs were simple: We were looking for a light dinner, near our hotel. This restaurant was where we landed. We sat on the terrace and had excellent.

Dobrna buy coke

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Correspondence: natasa. Extremophiles inhabit a wide variety of environments. Here we focus on extremophiles in moderate climates in central Europe, and particularly in Slovenia. Although multiple types of stress often occur in the same habitat, extremophiles are generally combined into groups according to the main stressor to which they are adapted. Several types of extremophiles, e. Psychrophiles thrive in ice caves and depressions with eternal snow and ice, with several globally distributed snow algae and psychrophilic bacteria that have been discovered in alpine glaciers. However, this area requires further research. Halophiles thrive in salterns while thermophiles inhabit thermal springs, although there is little data on such microorganisms in central Europe, despite many taxa being found globally. This review also includes the potential use of extremophiles in biotechnology and bioremediation applications. Keywords: extremophiles, oligotrophs, psychrophiles, halophiles, thermophiles, central Europe, karst, extremophile, saltern, sulphidic spring. This paper explores the origins and evolution of extremophiles in extreme habitats in Central Europe. They can be broadly separated into two categories: extremophilic organisms that require one or more extreme conditions to grow and extremotolerant organisms that can tolerate harsh conditions but grow optimally in a milder environment \[ 2 , 3 , 4 \]. They are also divided according to the primary stressor: thermophiles and hyperthermophiles grow at high or very high temperatures, respectively, while psychrophiles grow best at low temperatures, acidophiles and alkaliphiles are optimally adapted to acidic or basic pH values, barophiles grow best under pressure, and halophiles require high NaCl concentrations. Many of these organisms are usually polyextremophiles, i. For example, underground environments are dark and oligotrophic low nutrient content ; many hot springs are also acid or alkaline at the same time with a high metal content; the deep ocean habitats are generally cold, dark, lack nutrients, and are exposed to high pressure; and many hypersaline lakes are highly alkaline \[ 2 \]. Many habitats that are associated with extreme conditions are at the Poles, in the tropics, deserts, the deep sea, or often associated with volcanic activity \[ 5 \]. However, extremophiles can also be found in various environments that appear initially not so extreme. These include caves, with their low nutritional resources and extreme redox conditions; ice caves, glaciers, and cold depressions in shady areas of mountains where the ice never melts; salterns, with their well-known extreme hypersaline environments; and thermal and mineral springs, with their high temperatures and high mineral concentrations. A good example is Central Europe, known for its alpine mountain regions, where psychrophiles thrive, but many other extremophile habitats, such as cave environments, salt lakes, and alpine glaciers, can also be found in this area. Slovenia in particular, has a unique geographic position. It represents a relatively small area where many distinct climates and geographic settings meet, as defined by the Alps, the Pannonian Plain, and the Dinaric Karst. Furthermore, the Mediterranean influence is still very noticeable in southern Slovenia. Interestingly, extremophile microorganisms have been used historically in medicine in the antibiotic industry \[ 6 \], and more recently, new technological applications have become evident \[ 7 \], along with other approaches \[ 8 , 9 \]. One such use is for the biosequestration of CO 2 from the atmosphere \[ 10 \]. With this in mind, and the growing interest in extremophiles, this review gathers the available knowledge of such organisms in this unique geographic area Figure 1 and briefly discusses their potential use. Map showing the exact locations of extremophile microorganisms that are found in Central Europe; location coordinates were taken directly from the references that were given or their locations on the map. Legend: black: oligotrophs, white: psychrophiles, blue: halophiles, red: thermophiles, and yellow: extremophiles from sulphidic springs. Underground environments offer unique habitats for microorganisms. Even in well-studied areas such as Europe and North America, many known caves have not been fully accessed. However, with increased interest in speleology and the development of technologies that allow access to previously inaccessible underground areas, many new caves have been discovered and explored \[ 12 \], enabling the study of cave-dwelling microorganisms. Microorganisms can live underground in the soil, epikarst, and microcavities in rocks and fissures, many of which remain inaccessible and demand further research. Underground habitats in caves and other karst environments are generally characterised by low nutrient value and, in some cases, depletion of oxygen and extreme redox potential. Therefore, the cave habitat can change significantly from the surface to the rock base, resulting in many unknown microorganisms with unique physiologies \[ 6 , 7 , 13 , 14 \]. Caves generally consist of three zones. As the light decreases, the phototrophic community changes from phanerophytes, pteridophytes, and bryophytes to algae and cyanobacteria \[ 17 \]. The cave environments in the dark zone are also characterized by high humidity, low nutritional and energy resources, and sometimes extreme redox conditions \[ 11 \]. A variety of different minerals have been described for karst and pseudokarst areas to date \[ 9 \], with the most common being calcareous rock i. The dissolving of the rock and the precipitation of the minerals initiates speleothem formation. Based on the mechanisms of this formation and the dominant bio-geochemical reactions, at least 38 different types of speleothem have been described \[ 18 \]. These unique geological features mean that many caves are considered important cultural heritage sites and cave visitation is one of the oldest forms of tourism, which has seen growth in recent decades \[ 19 \]. Touristic caves have a significantly increased organic matter input and are partially lit by artificial lighting, thus allowing photosynthetic and allochthon heterotrophic organisms to grow. These can grow as microbial mats and in biofilms, and they compete with the autochthonous microorganisms, which are not adapted to these changed conditions. This anthropomorphic energy input changes the microbiome composition and results in the deterioration of the cave surfaces in terms of discolouration, loss of consistency, and dissolution \[ 19 , 20 \]. To preserve caves in karst environments, it is vital to establish regular monitoring, especially for tourist caves and other heavily human-impacted caves. It also requires the implementation of mitigation measures to preserve caves in their natural conditions, which is important because the natural microbiota in caves allows us to study palaeoclimatology, evolutionary relationships, and geochemical signatures of life. Cave-inhabiting organisms are generally oligotrophic. However, additional anthropomorphic energy input allows the growth of other organisms, which thus compete for the same resources and space \[ 21 \]. Different life forms have been found in caves, including viruses, archaea, bacteria and cyanobacteria, fungi, algae, protists, plants, and animals \[ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 \]. These can be present in different cave habitats and are associated with rock, cave walls, speleothems, springs, pools, and the air. Geochemical gradients of dissolved oxygen and sulphide can form ecotones where specialized archaeal and bacterial taxonomic groups thrive, depending on their metabolic and ecological requirements. Chemolithotrophic metabolism sustains the ecosystems of diverse bacterial and archaeal communities in oxygen-sulphide ecotones \[ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 \]. However, there remains a gap in our knowledge of microeukaryote diversity and their ecology in these redox-stratified habitats \[ 33 \]. Higher eukaryotes also thrive in these habitats, such as in deep-sea hydrothermal vents and other marine environments \[ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 \] and continental karst aquifers and caves \[ 40 , 41 \]. Novel lineages of taxa were found in both the oxygenated and anoxic mats. The oxygenated mats contained undescribed and undifferentiated fungi, Annelida, Nematoda, Apicomplexa, and Gastrotricha. While in the anoxic mats, the most diverse taxa were Ciliophora, Nematoda, and Fungi-Ascomycota. The interconnections between bacterial and archaeal diversity with distinct microeukaryotes are likely related to the grazing options and the food-web structure that is within the karst system \[ 33 \]. The most common energy sources in such environments are the atmospheric gases and the aromatic and polyaromatic compounds that are in the ground and water sources \[ 42 \]. Reduced metal ions within the rock itself i. Allochthonous autotrophs dominate in the microbial mats in human-influenced caves that are illuminated by artificial light. The lampenflora is a greenish mat that is predominantly composed of cyanobacteria and green microalgae \[ 21 , 43 \]. Another effect of human activities in caves is the introduction of foreign organic matter that can undergo decomposition. Similarly, caves with high energy input via polluted underground streams or polluted epikarst waters from unsaturated zones offer relatively high energy sources and promote different microbial especially bacterial communities \[ 44 \]. The microbial biomass can be considered a substantial food source for lower metazoans \[ 45 \] and cave-dwelling higher organisms \[ 43 \]. Microorganisms that enter into either sessile or motile interactions can be associated with other micro and macro organisms in symbiotic, mutualistic, and parasitic associations, such as the fungus Mucor troglophilus Mucoraceae and its association with the cave cricket Troglophilus neglectus Rhaphidoporidae \[ 43 \]. These complex ecological interactions can significantly influence the development of a cave ecosystem and the surfaces and shapes of the rock forms. The chemistry of these structures that they form can result in the incorporation of other minerals, which can change the integrity and colour of the rock. Furthermore, higher organisms can also be included in such interactions, with potentially the extreme example seen for bat guano, the principal energy source for heterotrophs in caves in temperate climates \[ 46 \]. Guano provides energy and nutrients to many microorganisms, including bacteria and even some pathogens \[ 42 , 47 \], fungi, and many guanophillic faunas \[ 42 \]. Diverse communities have been found at depths of 6. They grow in invisible colonies and can only be detected when their numbers increase to form a mat or a biofilm. Indeed, such microorganisms have an essential role in mineral changes on cave surfaces e. Indeed, many processes that were previously considered as purely inorganic chemical processes are biochemical \[ 49 \]. The same has been reported for karst features \[ 50 \], which have also been classified as extreme environments \[ 51 , 52 \]. For example, it has been shown that the hyphae of fungi can penetrate marble and limestone \[ 53 \]. Further studies have indicated that microorganisms can have critical roles in processes such as weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and cementation \[ 54 , 55 \]. More recently, other mineral deposits that are difficult to explain purely by geological or inorganic processes, such as subaqueous stalactite-shaped pool fingers in cave pools, has provided additional evidence for microbial involvement in rock-formation processes. In addition, many carbonate minerals within caves are associated with heterotrophic bacteria, including metastable carbonates, such as vaterite \[ 56 \]. However, mineral precipitation is not associated with the microorganisms themselves but is closely correlated with bacterial cells, i. In caves, many fascinating microbial associations have been observed. This phenomenon is due to the gold shine of the colonies when illuminated with a light source, whereby water droplets magnify the yellowish pigment of the microbial mat beneath the water film. Cave gold is usually formed where organic matter enters a cave, i. However, careful interpretation of such data will be required to understand the metabolic pathways and ecology, as closely related organisms can have different physiologies \[ 59 \]. As karst environments have remained under-researched, new species are often found even today; e. Analysis of the metagenome from caves around the world has already shown high microbial diversity \[ 11 \]. The Slovenian Classical Karst offers an excellent research opportunity since it is well karstified and it covers a large area. These voids often provide specific microhabitats for microorganisms. Slovenia has a relatively long history of research into cave microbial communities, with the pioneering studies carried out from in the Planinska cave \[ 63 \]. Since then, various microenvironments and their microbial mats have been studied, although this habitat remains under-researched. Bacteria appear to be the most diverse group in these underground habitats, with archaea less abundant. With cave bacteria showing wide adaptability and diversity, and based on different physiologies and nutrient cycles, these offer vast biotechnological and bioremediation potential \[ 43 \]. Studies of the microbial colonies from the Pajsarjeva cave in Slovenia have shown great diversity of bacteria, although archaea were not found \[ 59 \]. The dominant bacteria group was Gammaproteobacteria. However, in other human-impacted caves, Actinobacteria and Nitrospira followed these. This molecular survey also identified Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Deltaproteobacteria, Acidobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, Planctomycetes Chloroflexi, and Gemmatimonadetes. Furthermore, the samples also showed a broad spectrum of unknown and yet-to-be-cultivated microorganisms. This dominance of Proteobacteria was in agreement with previous studies from caves all around the world. For such subsurface systems, the best-studied microbiologically have probably been the Altamira cave \[ 57 , 64 , 65 , 66 \] and Tito Bustillo cave \[ 67 \] in Spain; the Wind cave in South Dakota, USA \[ 68 \]; the sulphur caves and springs of Parker cave Kentucky , the Cesspool cave Virginia , and Lower Kane cave Wyoming in the USA; Movile cave in Romania \[ 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 \]; and the Frassasi caves in Italy \[ 73 , 74 \]. Although Proteobacteria do not usually inhabit extreme environments, they can degrade many organic substances \[ 75 \]. However, the dominance of Proteobacteria can be explained by enhanced nutrient availability. This thesis was supported by Northup et al. Another comparative study was conducted on different parts of the single underground system of Kartchner Caverns Arizona, USA \[ 77 \]. This study revealed differences in the cultivable microbial diversity between the high human-impacted areas dominated by Proteobacteria and the low human-impacted areas dominated by Firmicutes, which can tolerate low-nutrient environments and desiccation. Furthermore, the microbial community in the highly human-impacted cave, Lascaux cave in France, was almost exclusively Proteobacteria \[ 78 \]. Anthropogenic influences can also change the physicochemical properties of these habitats and their microbial composition, as was shown for the Krajcarca spring in Triglav National Park, in Slovenia \[ 79 \]. In the underground karst system of the Pivka River in Slovenia, human interventions correlate with fluctuations in the sulphate and chloride levels and the concentrations of organic and faecal pollutants \[ 31 \]. Another interesting feature of the bacteria in karstic caves is the sprout-like formations that are attached to the cave streams beds. These were first described a century ago in the Vjetrenica cave in the Dinaric Karst. These microorganisms are intermingled with the mineral inclusions \[ 80 \]. However, in a study by Reitschuler et al. In contrast to the highly complex bacterial and fungal communities, the moon-milk speleothems and other internal cave habitats showed low numbers of archaeal species \[ 81 \]. The archaeal community also showed depth-dependent and oxygen-dependent stratification, with the majority of the taxa belonging to the ammonia-oxidizing Thaumarchaeota and another group that is distantly related to the extremophilic Euryarchaeota moon-milk archaea \[ 25 \]. The communities of the archaeal species were more constant than the bacteria and fungi were, indicating that archaea dominate these underground microbial communities. In the moon-milk, an aerobic and microaerophilic archaeal community was abundant, while there were few methanogens. It was also apparent that methanogenesis is of marginal importance in the archaeal moon-milk biome, while ammonia oxidation and a still undiscovered metabolic pathway are vital elements \[ 25 \]. These archaea species in the Austrian Alps included Nitrosopumilus maritimus Nitrosopumilaceae , Nitrososphaera gargensis Nitrososphaeraceae , Aciduliprofundum boonei DHVE2 , Methanomassiliicoccus luminyensis Methanomassiliicoccales , and Thermogymnomonas acidicola Thermoplasmatales. However, the differences in the reported archaeal species likely derive from the different methods that were used in their cultivation and partly to the geographic positioning i. Given that the studies from the Dinaric cave agree with US, Italian, and Spanish studies, it is less likely that this will be the case. Table 1 lists oligotrophic microorganisms in Central Europe with their locations shown in Figure 1. Extremophilic microorganisms in Central Europe For exact locations, see Figure 1. Colour code: black: bacteria; red: archaea; blue: cyanobacteria; green: algae green algae, diatom ; brown: fungi. Indeed, such cave-inhabiting microorganisms have great biotechnological and bioremediation potential, although they remain to be exploited further \[ 82 , 83 , 84 \]. Many cave microorganisms can produce and metabolize different substances through processes that remain effective at low temperatures, such as antibiotics and tumour suppressors \[ 85 \]. Microorganisms that are present in moon-milk represent candidates for reducing greenhouse gasses due to their role in the precipitation of calcite and the fixation of CO 2 \[ 82 , 83 , 84 \]. A novel species of microorganism that was isolated in Carlsbad Cavern that can degrade complex hazardous aromatic compounds, such as benzothiazole and benzenesulfonic compounds, is now being used to manufacture plastics \[ 86 \]. Biotechnologically valuable microorganisms can also be isolated from cave-dwelling fauna, such as fungal isolates from the cave cricket T. In addition to the direct uses of cave microorganisms, caves and their microbiome can serve as model systems for several biological disciplines, particularly palaeoclimatology, geobiology, and astrobiology. Subsurface caves allow the study of microbial communities that have adapted to extreme oligotrophic and cold conditions and the possible requirements of extra-terrestrial life forms \[ 7 \]. Caves represent a good approximation for the study of the boundary of living conditions for microorganisms. Karst underground systems also have great potential for discovering new species \[ 60 \], and thus new metabolic pathways and biologically active substances for use in medicine and pharmacy \[ 58 \]. Likewise, caves with diverse microbiota that interact with different habitats allow the study of the flow of genetic material and the development of new microbial lineages \[ 58 \]. Caves and subsurface environments represent refugia and are sometimes windows into the past, thus providing suitable microbiomes for studying evolutionary biology \[ 24 \] and studying intra-terrestrial microbial communities that have adapted to oligotrophic and cold conditions \[ 25 \]. Underground karst systems with natural accessibility, such as the underground Pivka River, provide excellent study sites to monitor the quantitative changes of chemical and biological factors \[ 31 \]. Another atypical use of extremophiles is in research on resistance genes in cave environments where the anthropogenic influence is minimal. These studies can provide insight into the natural presence of resistance genes and the speed of gene transmission. As resistant strains are already a considerable healthcare liability, the use of extremophiles in the production of new antibiotics might become indispensable \[ 90 \]. In frigid habitats, the availability of liquid water is what determines microbial activity. Frigid habitats include snow, surface ice, cryoconite holes, englacial systems, and the interface between the ice and the underlying rock and soil. Psychrophiles are gaining recognition as the polar ice melts due to global warming, which uncovers and produces more niches for these microorganisms \[ \]. At the same time, ice-algal blooms in communities with fungi \[ \] and bacteria \[ \] can darken the surface of the ice and thus cause it to melt more rapidly, contributing adversely to the effects of global warming \[ , , , , , , \]. However, psychrophiles can also be found in moderate climates \[ 5 \] in permanent glaciers, lakes \[ \], and ice caves. Glaciers and ice sheets are unique ecosystems since they are microbially driven and contain great diversity \[ \]. The habitats that are provided by different glaciers are remarkably similar, particularly in terms of their primary producers and ecosystem engineers. In aquatic and sediment systems, such as cryoconite holes, cyanobacteria are the dominant primary producers, while eukaryotic Zygonematales take on this role on ice surfaces and Chlamydomonadales within the snow. Chemolithotrophs that are associated with the sulphur and iron cycles and carbon transformation in subglacial ecosystems enable chemical transformation at the ice-rock interface that supports the delivery of nutrients to downstream ecosystems \[ \]. At the same time, samples from glacier cryoconite holes in the Austrian Alps contain bacteria, yeast, and hyphomycetes \[ \]. Snow algae are frequently found in alpine and polar permanent snow ecosystems and have developed adaptations to low temperatures and freeze-thaw regimes, with high and low irradiation, and low nutrient levels. Indeed, snow algae live in a unique microhabitat—the liquid water between the snow crystals \[ \]. Like Chlamydomonas nivalis Chlamydomonadales , some appear to be cosmopolitan, while others are restricted to one or more specific areas \[ \]. Snow and ice algae are the dominant primary producers at the onset of melting and can support cryoconite communities by providing carbon and nutrient sources \[ \]. However, most algal cells are retained on the glacial surface, where their pigmentation can change the albedo of the snow and ice beneath \[ \]. Phototrophs that inhabit mountain glaciers are often exposed to high UV radiation due to clear skies and internal reflections within the snow. However, this is not the case for alpine depressions and cave entrances where there is eternal snow and ice, as the light levels are generally lower. Therefore, these two niches are very different and require other divergent adaptations besides adjusting to cold temperatures. Snow and glacial algae are found on all continents and they mainly belong to Chlamydomonadales Chlorophyta and Zygnematales Streptophyta ; the most common community is Chlamydomonas—Chloromonas. Other algal groups include euglenoids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria. These phototrophs can turn the snow green, golden-brown, red, pink, orange, or purple-grey. Secondary metabolites such as astaxanthin in snow algae and purpurogallin in glacial algae protect the chloroplasts and nuclei from excessive light, while ice-binding proteins and polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce the potential for cell damage at subfreezing temperatures. As well as the algae, these communities can include a range of other microorganisms: i. The red-coloured chlorophyte Chlamydomonas nivalis is commonly found in summer snowfields worldwide \[ \], including Europe \[ , \]. Its colour is derived from the carotenoid astaxanthin, which protects the chloroplast and the cell from excessive light by blocking blue light \[ \]. However, other microalgae, such as Sanguina nivaloides Chlamydomonadales and Sanguina aurantia , can result in red and orange snow. Brownish-red blooms of snow algae in the High Tatra Mountains Slovakia were initially described as Scotiella tatre Chlamydomonadales and were later genetically identified as Chloromonas nivalis subsp. Haematococcus pluvialis Chlamydomonadales is also in Europe, and ambiguities around the taxonomic lineages of this species are discussed in \[ \]. The alga Chlamidomonas sp. These populations mainly consist of smooth-walled quadriflagellates, and ecologically highly specialized cryoflora species are most likely to be distributed globally \[ 98 \]. Given the proximity and similarity of the studied areas in Austria and Slovakia to the Slovenian Alps, similar algae are also expected to inhabit niches within melting snow in the Southern Alps. While there have been many studies on the geology of the Alps and the Dinaric mountains and valleys e. Indeed, there are ice caves that are registered in Slovenia alone. These have been used for centuries and studied over the last years \[ \]. The biggest and most important ice caves are the Paradana cave ice volume, 8. The cause of these extreme temperatures is the circulating cold air that cools the cave entrance during the cold half of the year, while in the warm half of the year, the airflow reverses and melts part of the ice. Similar airflow conditions have been reported for numerous blowholes near the Paradana ice cave Trnovski gozd, Slovenia. The blowholes and cave entrances store the cold, which causes temperature and vegetation inversions in depressions in the Dinaric karst. However, ice mass has decreased due to climate change in most known ice caves \[ \] and surface glaciers, such as the Triglav glacier \[ \]. The isotopic profiles of ice samples from Paradana cave ice are similar to those that have been described for other ice caves in central and Eastern Europe \[ \]. However, individual differences can occur due to the isolation of glaciers and ice caves. A study of the microorganisms that are living in the Paradana cave revealed that proteobacteria represented the core of the cave-ice microbiome Actinobacteria was the second most abundant phylum Ice phylotypes that were recorded amounted to genera, but only 43 genera had abundances greater than 0. The most abundant were Pseudomonas and Lysobacter , which previously was not reported in this context. Additionally, two xanthophytes, known from polar environments, Chloridella glacialis Mischococcales and Ellipsoidion perminimum Mischococcales , were also cultured from the ice. These results suggest that the abundance of phototrophs and their ecological role in ice environments might be greater than previously deduced \[ \]. Classical cultivation and molecular techniques were used and the results showed that prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms thrive in the organic-rich ice and transparent ice layers. The composition of the cold-adapted ice-embedded microbiota varied with the habitat age and organic content, which provided valuable data for reconstructing the changes in the microbial diversity over the past years in correlation with climatic change and environmental changes that were recorded by the ice block \[ \]. A list of psychrophiles in Central Europe with their country of origin Figure 1 can be found in Table 1. Psychrophiles can produce protective pigments, such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phenols \[ 95 , , , , \], which are commercially useful, e. They can synthesize cold-active enzymes to sustain their cell cycle. These enzymes are already used in many biotechnological applications that require high activities at mild temperatures or a fast heat-inactivation rate \[ \]. Hypersaline habitats, i. Each environment has its own unique mineral content, temperature, and pH characteristics, meaning that organisms have become adapted to various habitat requirements. They also vary in other physicochemical parameters such as chemical structure, average temperatures, conduction, pH, and mineral content. Additionally, the range of different parameters and their fluctuation in time is incredibly diversified, e. Unlike psychrophiles where a few globally distributed species dominate, halophiles live in much more diverse environments. Hypersaline habitats are mainly dominated by prokaryotes archaea and bacteria , with only a few eukaryotes reported. However, new research has shown that melanised fungi thrive in hypersaline saltern ponds \[ , , \]. As well as the unicellular green algae, these environments include cyanobacteria, anoxygenic anaerobic bacteria, sulphate reducers, sulphur oxidizers, nitrate reducers, and ammonia oxidizers \[ , \]. In some cases, the density of the halophiles can be high enough to be visible, such as with the pink-red colour in the brine of salterns from the pigments i. The diversity of microorganisms along salinity gradients for different taxa was studied for the Santa Pola salterns in Alicante Spain. Here the eukaryotic diversity showed a significant drop, while the procaryotes were much more adaptable across the salinity gradient \[ \]. Of note, the physiological responses to salinity vary significantly between the optimal and high salt concentrations and do not show simple graded effects as the salt concentration increases \[ \]. The nearest salt lake to Slovenia is in Bosnia Tuzla ; however, no microorganisms from this site have been examined. A recent study of the Transylvanian anthropo-hypersaline lakes Romania showed that inland salt lakes are often dominated by photoautotrophic picoplankton, such as the green algal species Picochlorum oklahomense Chlorellales marine-related cyanobacteria Synechococcus isolates Chroococcales. These marine species were recorded for the first time in inland saline lakes in Europe. Several additional marine taxa e. Another study from a salt lake in Romania that focused on bacteria reported that the hypersaline layer i. Green algae e. Solar salterns are inhabited by highly specialized extremophiles at high cell densities e. The ponds of different salinity levels are inhabited by different communities, as discussed in detail by Gunde-Cimerman et al. The red blooms that are characteristic of the Great Salt Lake USA , the alkaline hypersaline lakes of the African Rift Valley, and the Dead Sea are typical of the crystallization ponds of coastal and inland salterns; different types of pigmented microorganisms can contribute to the colouration of brine \[ , \]. The most important of these are the halophilic archaea of the class Halobacteria. The latter also contains the carotenoid salinixanthin and the retinal protein xanthorhodopsin. The potential role of these microorganisms in the salt production process has also been discussed \[ \]. A review on the complex community structure and distribution of halophilic archaea and heterotrophic bacteria genus Salinibacter \[ \] combined data from saltern crystallization ponds in USA, Canada, Israel, and Spain , the Dead Sea, and African hypersaline soda lakes. Salinibacter ruber is extremely halophilic and cohabits Mediterranean salterns in France, Spain with halophilic archaea. In a second review, the authors focus on the structure of the microbial community in crystallized brine and the interrelationships between red halophilic archaea Haloquadratum walsbyi Halobacteriales , bacteria genus Salinibacter , and the unicellular green algae Dunaliella. Dunaliella produces large amounts of glycerol to provide osmotic stabilization, which becomes the most important energy source for prokaryotes i. However, archaea, bacteria, and green algae are not the only taxa to inhabit hypersaline salt ponds. Black yeast and fungi are an essential part of these communities \[ , , , , \]. In contrast to tropic and subtropical salterns, the Adriatic salterns are dynamic systems as salt production is only possible in the short dry periods of the year due to the relatively humid and cold Mediterranean climate. Therefore, Adriatic saltern basins are unusually shallow and the brine is only retained for short periods. All of these specifics make them a unique study area for specialized halophiles. The highest population frequencies occurred just before the peak NaCl concentration and included H. It appears that these hypersaline waters represent a natural ecological niche for H. Melanised fungi have only been described to date in the crystallization ponds of the Adriatic salterns during salt production \[ , \]. The halophilic fungi T. They showed xylanolytic and ligninolytic activity under hypersaline and nonsaline conditions; T. It has been suggested that these halophilic fungi have an active lignicolous saprobic role in hypersaline environments \[ \]. Another study investigated the growth and intracellular cation concentrations of salt-adapted and non-salt-adapted cells of H. These data confirmed the halophilic nature of H. They also reported higher haloarchaeal diversity than expected from previous studies of such hypersaline environments. Rarefaction analysis suggested that the analysis of increasing numbers of clones would have revealed additional diversity. This unique and diverse haloarchaeal community can be ascribed to the rare conditions of continuous short-cycle salt production \[ \]. The Haloquadratum branch was repeatedly found in dry and hot climates in Spain and Australia \[ \]. However, Halorubrum was also well represented in inland solar salterns in southern Spain \[ \] and Haloquadratum spp. The mat originates from the salterns on the island of Pag but has now been cultivated for several centuries \[ \]. The petola is covered with brine during the salt production season, while it is fertilized with anoxic marine mud and saline water outside the season. It is used to prevent the crystallized halite from mixing with the mud at the bottom of the ponds and incorporating undesired ions into the halite crystals i. Sulphate-reducing microorganisms were found in the dark anoxic reduced sediment a few millimetres below the petola surface. In a study by Tkavc et al. This study compared communities in the petola at the peak of the harvesting season and in an abandoned inactive petola. The inactive petola showed a higher biodiversity than the active petola. The inorganic conditions also differed between the mats, including the oxygen and sulphide concentrations \[ \]. The microorganism community develops during the early evaporation stages and survives the high salinity and halite crystallization, thereby supporting the entire salt production process \[ \]. Furthermore, the effects of the microbial mat composition and structure on the salt production process have been studied, especially regarding the organization of the extracellular polymer secretion \[ \]. A comprehensive molecular and cultivation study was carried out for the Croatian solar salterns in Ston to investigate common patterns of haloarchaeal diversity in low and high extreme hypersaline environments \[ \]. Isolates from the genera Haloferax , Haloarcula , and Haloterrigena were recovered from the Croatian and Slovenian salterns. The microbial communities were similar in these two salterns, with increased diversity in the Slovenian salterns compared to the Croatian Ston \[ \]. Haloquadratum walsbyi remained the dominant species across these two salinities, although novel, abundant, and previously unsuspected microbial groups were also present. These included a group of low guanine-cytosine GC actinobacteria, a low-GC euryarchaeon, a high-GC euryarchaeon, and a Gammaproteobacterium related to Alkalilimnicola and Nitrococcus \[ 90 \]. The molecular results for the GC Euryarchaeon suggest a photoheterotrophic and polysaccharide-degrading lifestyle that appears to be related to the Nanohaloarchaea \[ \]. Compared to other hypersaline environments, the Adriatic salterns are not exposed to high levels of thermal stress, as can occur in sub tropical salterns and hypersaline thermal springs. In such cases, extremophiles need to adapt to high salinity and temperatures, resulting in a different microbial structure. For example, bacteria were mainly found in the hypersaline environments in Armenia \[ \]. A list of halophiles locations where they were found is given in Table 1 and Figure 1. Halophiles are interesting from an ecological point of view and as model organisms for several processes and research on archaea, mainly as they are generally easy to grow i. Although extremophile halophiles are less exploited in biotechnological processes than other extremophiles, e. Extremophiles and marine microorganisms are a source of food-grade enzymes \[ \]. The role of the microbial communities in salt production processes has already been discussed \[ \]. In addition, secondary metabolites from halophiles and their potential in bioremediation appear to be of importance. Another promising biotechnological use is the production of biofuels \[ \]. Other examples include ectoine used as a stabilizer for enzymes from Halomonas Oceanospirillales and bacteriorhodopsin from Halobacterium \[ \]. Ectoine is used in cosmetics, skincare products, and medicinal preparations; furthermore, it is used in molecular techniques. Other beneficial compounds have been found in various halophiles that inhabit temperate climates. These include the highly halophilic haloarchaeon Sech 7a, isolated from a solar saltern that secretes halocin, a bacteriocin-like substance with antimicrobial activity. Halophilic proteins lose part of their activity under low salt conditions, although it can be restored in initial saline conditions. Tests with sensitive cells that reacted with swelling and lysis upon exposure to halocin have indicated that haloarchaeon Sech 7a secretes a novel bacteriocin \[ \]. While many more uses have been reported worldwide, this brief example shows that a novel and potentially useful compound can even be found in a small area of a moderately extreme habitat Adriatic salterns are not as dry and as hot as tropical and subtropical salterns. However, strictly sterile conditions are often needed to scale up these halophilic processes \[ \]. In addition to the dark and low-nutrient underground environments, hypersaline habitats like salterns and cold habitats like glaciers, there are other extreme environments in Slovenia and central Europe: mineral and thermal springs. Thermal springs represent extreme habitats due to their high temperature that is often accompanied by specific mineral content. Although the mineral springs range in temperature, they have high mineral content, e. They are often used as a source of mineral water, and hot springs are sometimes used for spas, depending on other characteristics. A condensed overview of the thermophiles that inhabit American hot springs was presented by Ashcroft \[ 5 \], albeit European examples were not included. Nevertheless, thermal springs similar to extremely cold environments worldwide appear to have unexpectedly similar chemical compositions and temperatures at their point of emergence \[ \]. Southern Europe is one of the areas with the highest density of hot springs \[ \]. However, not much is known about the microorganisms that inhabit these diverse habitats. The Slovenian thermal springs range in both temperature and geochemical conditions, and thus it is expected that different microbial communities will inhabit these different habitats. The geochemical properties and radioactivity of the commercial springs have been well-studied \[ \], as geochemical monitoring of such thermal springs is conducted frequently \[ \]. Unfortunately, at present, no studies have been carried out on the microorganisms in Slovenian thermal springs. In Bulgaria, however, several strains of Bacillus spp. Thermophiles are widely used in food production especially milk fermentation—cheese production \[ \]. Some species enable these processes, and others represent a microbiological hazard \[ \]. However, even some non-beneficial thermophiles can be used in food production as hygiene indicators of processed products \[ \]. Thermophiles can also be used as indicators in the monitoring of wastewaters \[ \]. In addition, thermophiles are promising candidates for the pharmaceutical industry. Many members of the genus Bacillus have antimicrobial activities, and the same was confirmed for most of these isolated and tested strains \[ \]. High antimicrobial activities were indicated against six species of moulds, and moderate inhibition of the bacterium Enterococcus faecalis was reported. Of the strains, two showed moderate antimicrobial activity against the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and one strain showed moderate activity against Candida utilis. Only Escherichia coli was not inhibited \[ \]. Since unique chemical conditions also characterize thermal springs e. Further studies are needed to investigate the diversity, metabolic pathways, and use of thermophiles from thermal springs. Since sulphur can occur in several natural oxidation states, its biogeochemical cycle is critical, as well as understanding the microorganisms that are involved in many sulphur transitions \[ , \]. When these habitats are exposed to light, phototrophic bacteria are involved in redox sulphur conversions, as well as chemotrophs and heterotrophs \[ \]. In Sovra, a significant difference was shown for the phototrophic communities that were sampled at the outflow and further downstream. Caloneis tenuis Naviculales , Frustulla vulgaris Naviculales , Gomphonema spp. Cymbellales , Navicula radiosa Naviculales , Oscillatoria spp. Nostocales , and Tribonema vulgare Tribonematales thrived exclusively at the outflow of the borehole, where there was a high hydrogen sulphide content, which represents a condition that is not well suited to the majority of phototrophs. Downstream from the borehole, the autotrophic biofilms were dominated by diatoms with some species being specific to this habitat. The same was shown for the bacterial communities \[ \]. These were affiliated with sulphur-metabolizing or chemolithoautotrophic taxa within the Proteobacteria, mainly belonging to the GammaBetaproteobacteria and Epsilonproteobacteria. The archaea diversity mainly from Euryarchaeota differed in specific parts of the white and grey mats, which reflected the ecological tolerance to these geochemical conditions e. Several eukaryota heterotroph taxa were found, although there was no algae \[ 33 \]. A list of thermophiles and microorganisms from sulphidic springs and their country of origin is given in Table 1 and Figure 1. Several types of extremophile microorganisms inhabit different environments in the central European moderate climate: oligotrophic microorganisms inhabit caves and other subsurface environments, while psychrophiles are found in snow and ice, halophiles in salterns and other hypersaline environments along the Mediterranean coast, and thermophiles in thermal springs. Their unique properties provide us with opportunities to study their different metabolic pathways and adaptive mechanisms. Their production of antimicrobial substances can be very useful in medicine and biotechnology, while the enzymes that they produce are thermostable and stable to high and low pH levels. Alternatively, extremophiles can also produce harmful compounds, which they use as an energy source. Lithoautotrophic extremophiles could be used to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide and use it as an energy source. The use of metagenomics has also provided enhanced information on microbial diversity, particularly for extremophilic environments, compared to previous cultivation-dependent and classical molecular techniques. However, gene sequencing cannot provide information on their metabolic pathways and ecology, as closely related organisms can have very different physiologies. This knowledge will provide greater insight into the roles of extremophiles in extreme environments and their potential biotechnological and medical applications. Conceptualization, V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Find articles by Vera Zgonik. Find articles by Janez Mulec. Find articles by Nives Ogrinc. Find articles by Polona Jamnik. Open in a new tab. Slovenia \[ \] Navicula radiosa Slovenia \[ \] Tribonema vulgare Slovenia \[ \] diatoms Slovenia \[ \] undifferentiated fungi Slovenia \[ 33 , \] Ciliophora Fungi-Ascomycota Slovenia \[ 33 , \]. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Slovenia, Italy, Romania. Gammaproteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria Betaproteobacteria Deltaproteobacteria Acidobacteria Verrucomicrobia Planctomycetes Chloroflexi Gemmatimonadetes. Bosnia and Herzegovina. Arthrobacter arilaitensis , Kocuria polaris , Paenibacillus amyolyticus P. Nitrosopumilus maritimus , Nitrososphaera gargensis , Aciduliprofundum boonei , Methanomassiliicoccus luminyensis , and Thermogymnomonas acidicola. Austria, Italy. Chloridella glacialis. Ellipsoidion perminimum. Chlamydomonas nivalis. Austria, Bulgaria, Slovakia. Austria, Slovakia. Chloromonas nivalis Chloromonas nivalis subsp. Austria Slovakia. Chloromonas hindakii. Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Bulgaria. Chloromonas brevispina. Czech Republic, Bulgaria. Chloromonas rosae. Czech Republic. Sanguina nivaloides. Austria, Italy, Slovenia, Slovakia, Switzerland. Mesotaenium berggrenii ; Mesotaenium berggrenii var. Haematococcus pluvialis epitype ; Haematococcus rubicundus; Haematococcus rubens. Gammaproteobacteria Acinetobacter spp. Dunaliella salina. Slovenia, France. Haloquadratum spp. Slovenia, Croatia. Microcoelus chtonoplastes. Coleofasciculus chthonoplastes. Picochlorum oklahomense. Prosthecochloris vibrioformis. Mantionella , Picochlorum. Hortaea werneckii. Wallemia ichthyophaga. Phaeotheca triangularis. Trimmatostroma salinum. Aureobasidium pullulans. Extremophiles in sulphidic springs. Archaea mainly Euryarchaeota. Oscillatoria spp. Caloneis tenui. Frustulla vulgaris. Gomphonema spp. Navicula radiosa. Tribonema vulgare. Ciliophora Fungi-Ascomycota.

Dobrna buy coke