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Cones, Bosko, Hashish Vrsar

Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Box , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia; moc. In the United States, prevalence of marijuana-use has doubled in the past 2 decades. The aim was to compare the periodontal conditions and whole-salivary ILA and IL levels among young adult marijuana-smokers, heavy cigarette-smokers and non-smokers. Self-reported marijuana-smokers, heavy-cigarette-smokers, non-smokers with periodontitis and periodontally-healthy non-smokers were included. Fifteen-marijuana-smokers, 15 heavy-cigarette-smokers, 16 non-smokers-with-periodontitis and 15 periodontally-healthy-non-smokers were included. Marijuana- and heavy cigarette-smokers have comparable clinicoradiographic periodontal statuses. This rejects hypothesis However, whole salivary immunoinflammatory response may be moderately worse in marijuana-smokers compared with heavy cigarette-smokers and non-smoker with periodontitis thereby supporting hypothesis Marijuana Cannabis sativa , commonly known as bud, ganja, grass, pot and weed, is a grayish-green mix of dried flowers of Cannabis sativa ; and is the most commonly used psychotropic drug in the United States after alcohol \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 1 , 2 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Moreover, Cannabinoids are anti-inflammatory agents by decreasing anti-oxidative activities and production of destructive-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing the induction of apoptosis and T-regulatory cells \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 5 , 6 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. According to Hasin et al. Its use is more prevalent among males than females \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 1 , 2 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. The inflammatory immune response plays a role in the progression and etiopathogenesis of periodontitis \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 11 , 12 , 13 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Under periodontal inflammatory diseases, such as periodontitis, proinflammatory cytokines enhance soft tissue inflammation and marginal bone loss MBL \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 14 , 15 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Activation of Th17 cells produces interleukin IL A, a proinflammatory cytokine that induces inflammation and bone resorption by stimulating the release of matrix metalloproteinases and chemokines \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 16 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Another cytokine, IL that is produced by dendritic cells and macrophages plays a dominant role in ILA production \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 18 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. It has been reported that IL is associated with autoimmune destruction in diseases including allergic encephalomyelitis, arthritis and periodontitis \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 18 , 19 , 20 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. In general, there is a clear consensus that expression of ILA and IL in oral fluids UWS and gingival crevicular fluid \\\\\\\\\\\\\[GCF\\\\\\\\\\\\\] is associated with the etiopathogenesis of periodontitis \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 15 , 19 , 20 , 21 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Periodontal inflammatory parameters are worse among young adult marijuana-smokers and heavy cigarette-smokers compared with non-smokers with and without periodontitis. Whole salivary immunoinflammatory response is worse among young adult marijuana-smokers and heavy cigarette-smokers compared with non-smokers with and without periodontitis. The aim was to compare the periodontal conditions and whole salivary ILA and IL levels among young adult marijuana-smokers, heavy cigarette-smokers and non-smokers. All participants were aware that participation is completely voluntary and that withdrawal at any stage of the investigation bears no consequences. It was mandatory of individuals to have read and signed a written informed consent form. All participants were given verbal and written information about the significance of oral hygiene maintenance and deleterious effects of smoking on overall health. Participants were also asked about their highest level of education school-, college- and university-level they had attained. Individuals with University level education were defined as individuals who had graduated from a university \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 29 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Reason for smoking cigarettes and marijuana and family history of cigarette and marijuana smoking were also asked for. Number of missing teeth were recorded in all groups. Grossly-carious teeth with root remnants embedded in the jaw-bone were also considered missing. In all radiographs, marginal-bone-loss MBL was demarcated as the vertical void from 2-mm under the cement-enamel interface to the crest of interdental bone \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 35 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Radiographic assessments were performed by an experienced researcher Kappa score 0. The UWS samples were collected by a calibrated researcher Kappa 0. In summary, all UWS samples were collected during early morning hours between a. Patients were comfortably seated on a chair in a quiet room and requested to allow UWS to accumulate in the oral cavity over a 5-min duration. Patients were them requested to expectorate the UWS into a disposable plastic funnel, which was coupled with a gauged measuring-cylinder. The amount of expectorated UWS was recorded in milliliters. Laboratory-based investigations were performed by a trained investigator Kappa 0. A computer-based statistical software SPSS. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess data normality. Group-wise, statistical evaluations were done using one-way-analysis-of variance and Bonferroni post-hoc adjustment tests. A p -value, which was less than 0. In total, 15 marijuana-smokers, 15 heavy cigarette-smokers, 16 non-smokers with periodontitis and 15 periodontally-health non-smokers were included. All participants were male with no statistically significant difference in age. Cigarette-smoking had a smoking history of Graduate-level education was attained by Among cigarette-smokers, All marijuana-smokers reported that they used Cannabis to alleviate psychological stress. Tooth-brushing twice daily and flossing at least once daily was more often reported by non-smokers with a healthy periodontal status as compared to individuals in other groups Table 1. The numbers of missing teeth were higher among marijuana-smokers compared with non-smokers with periodontitis. NA: Not applicable. There was no significant difference in the unstimulated whole SFR among marijuana-smokers, cigarette-smokers, non-smokers with periodontitis and periodontally-healthy non-smokers. IL: Interleukin. SFR: Salivary flow rate. From a clinicoradiographic perspective, the present results showed that periodontal inflammatory status was worse in marijuana-smokers and cigarette-smokers compared with non-smokers without periodontitis positive controls. These results are in accordance with previous clinical studies \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 9 , 13 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. One justification for this is that nicotine a major and addictive component in tobacco induces destructive effects on human gingival fibroblasts HGF , periodontal ligament cells and alveolar bone \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 40 , 41 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Moreover, results from an in-vitro study \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 42 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] showed that exposure of HGF to high concentrations of nicotine and cotinine a metabolite of nicotine impairs their attachment to root surfaces. With reference to detrimental effects of marijuana-smoking on alveolar bone, results from an experimental study in rat-models showed that marijuana-smoke inhalation increases alveolar bone loss and decreases bone density \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 43 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. According to Nakajima et al. The present results no significant difference in clinical and radiographic periodontal inflammatory parameters among heavy cigarette-smokers and marijuana-smokers. This was in contradiction to the proposed hypothesis. Despite the clinicoradiographic similarities among cigarette- and marijuana-smokers, a marked variation in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in the UWS was noted in these individuals. The present results showed that whole salivary ILA and IL levels were significantly higher in the UWS of marijuana-smokers compared with non-smokers with periodontitis. This suggests that whole salivary assessment of ILA and IL can be used as a biomarker of periodontitis especially among tobacco-smokers and recreational-drug smokers. However, by no means does this imply that cigarette-smoking is safer than smoking Cannabis. The authors performed a regression analysis to corelate the clinicoradiographic parameters and whole salivary IL and IL levels with age, gender education status and frequency of smoking cigarettes and marijuana; however, no statistically significant association between these parameters existed data not shown. In the present study, exclusively heavy cigarette-smokers were included. A reasoning for this criterion was based on the perception that since marijuana jeopardizes HGF, periodontal ligament cells as well as alveolar bone \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 40 , 41 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]; comparison of marijuana-smokers with light- and moderate cigarette-smokers may give false-positive outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding the precise classification of cigarette-smokers based upon smoking history pack-years. For instance, in the study by Hassan et al. It is further suggested that criteria for classification for recreational-drug such a marijuana-smokers users based upon recreational-drug use history may also be useful for future studies in the related field. Determination of the optimal sample-size for a study is critical as it helps estimate the power to detect statistical significances \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 48 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. In this regard, a major limitation of the present study is that a prior sample-size estimation power analysis was not performed. Therefore, the reported p -value for group-comparisons should be cautiously interpreted. Moreover, education status was poorer among marijuana- and heavy cigarette-smokers compared with non-smokers with periodontitis and periodontally-healthy controls. Interdental flossing and routine visits to oral healthcare providers were more often reported by periodontally-healthy individuals compared with patients in other groups. These factors could have contributed towards worsening periodontal inflammation among marijuana-smokers, heavy cigarette-smokers and non-smokers with periodontitis. It is also noteworthy that tobacco-smoking was self-reported in the present study. Furthermore, based upon the staging and grading criteria, periodontal inflammation was worse in marijuana-and cigarette smokers compared with non-smokers with periodontitis. It is speculated that non-smokers with a staging and grading of periodontitis may demonstrate IL and IL levels that are comparable with cigarette-smokers and marijuana-smokers. It is possible that these individuals had an underprivileged socioeconomic status that could be associated with their poor education status. This could have compelled these individuals to use tobacco cigarettes as in the present scenario and cannabis to temporarily alleviate socioeconomic-based stresses. Patient health education and anti-tobacco and cannabis based programs may play a role in improving the quality of life of susceptible populations. Further studies are needed to test these hypotheses. All authors have made substantial contribution to the conception and design of the present study. All authors have given final approval of the version to be published. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest related to the present study. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Oct Fawad Javed , 1 Abeer S. Al-Zawawi , 2 Khaled S. Abeer S. Khaled S. Find articles by Khaled S. Find articles by Ahmad Almatroudi. Abdulaziz A. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Aug 12; Accepted Oct 9. Abstract In the United States, prevalence of marijuana-use has doubled in the past 2 decades. Keywords: alveolar bone loss, Cannabis sativa , cigarette smoking, marijuana, probing depth, whole saliva. Introduction Marijuana Cannabis sativa , commonly known as bud, ganja, grass, pot and weed, is a grayish-green mix of dried flowers of Cannabis sativa ; and is the most commonly used psychotropic drug in the United States after alcohol \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 1 , 2 \\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 2. Materials and Methods 2. Results 3. General Characteristics of the Study Groups In total, 15 marijuana-smokers, 15 heavy cigarette-smokers, 16 non-smokers with periodontitis and 15 periodontally-health non-smokers were included. Table 1 Characteristics of the study cohort. Open in a separate window. SD: Standard deviation. Discussion From a clinicoradiographic perspective, the present results showed that periodontal inflammatory status was worse in marijuana-smokers and cigarette-smokers compared with non-smokers without periodontitis positive controls. Conclusions Marijuana- and heavy cigarette-smokers have comparable clinicoradiographic periodontal statuses. Author Contributions All authors have made substantial contribution to the conception and design of the present study. Funding This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest related to the present study. References 1. Berg C. The development and pilot testing of the marijuana retail surveillance tool MRST : Assessing marketing and point-of-sale practices among recreational marijuana retailers. Health Educ. Carliner H. The widening gender gap in marijuana use prevalence in the U. Drug Alcohol Depend. Russo E. Taming THC: Potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Lee C. Nagarkatti P. Cannabinoids as novel anti-inflammatory drugs. Future Med. Chen J. Protective effect of cannabidiol on hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress in nucleus pulposus cells. Hasin D. JAMA Psychiatry. Wilkinson S. Shariff J. Chisini L. Is the use of Cannabis associated with periodontitis? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Periodontal Res. Mokeem S. Public Health. Javed F. Comparison of periodontal and socioeconomic status between subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus and non-diabetic controls. Korn T. IL and Th17 Cells. Liukkonen J. Beklen A. Kramer J. Interleukin A new paradigm in inflammation, autoimmunity, and therapy. McKenzie B. Understanding the ILIL immune pathway. Trends Immunol. Bunte K. Luo Z. Ohyama H. The involvement of IL and the Th17 pathway in periodontitis. Mohanty P. Salivary free hemoglobin and lactate dehydrogenase as biomarkers for periodontal disease in smokers. Quintessence Int. Costa F. Associations of duration of smoking cessation and cumulative smoking exposure with periodontitis. Oral Sci. Lee Y. Cumulative smoking exposure, duration of smoking cessation, and peripheral arterial disease in middle-aged and older Korean men. BMC Public Health. Lorenz D. Effect of marijuana smoking on pulmonary disease in HIV-infected and uninfected men: A longitudinal cohort study. Mehmood A. Self-perceived oral symptoms and periodontal status among young intravenous heroin addicts: A cross-sectional case-control study. Mahmood N. Measuring the education gap in primary and secondary schooling in Pakistan. Khan M. Why should the faculty adopt reciprocal teaching as part of the medical curriculum? Buzdar M. Armitage G. Relationship between the percentage of subgingival spirochetes and the severity of periodontal disease. Loe H. Microscopic evaluation of clinical measurements of connective tissue attachment levels. Updegrave W. The paralleling extension-cone technique in intraoral dental radiography. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. Khocht A. Comparison of direct digital and conventional intraoral radiographs in detecting alveolar bone loss. Qadri T. Laser Surg. Chapple I. Periodontal health and gingival diseases and conditions on an intact and a reduced periodontium: Consensus report of workgroup 1 of the World Workshop on the Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions. Papapanou P. Whole salivary interleukin-6 and matrix metalloproteinase-8 levels in patients with chronic periodontitis with and without prediabetes. Periodontal parameters and whole salivary cytokine profiles among habitual gutka chewers and non-chewers. Recent updates on electronic cigarette aerosol and inhaled nicotine effects on periodontal and pulmonary tissues. Oral Dis. Bosco A. A histologic and histometric assessment of the influence of nicotine on alveolar bone loss in rats. Esfahrood Z. The effect of nicotine and cotinine on human gingival fibroblasts attachment to root surfaces. Basic Clin. Nogueira-Filho G. Impact of cannabis sativa marijuana smoke on alveolar bone loss: A histometric study in rats. Nakajima Y. Endocannabinoid, anandamide in gingival tissue regulates the periodontal inflammation through NF-kappaB pathway inhibition. FEBS Lett. Hassan M. Effect of different types of smoking and synergism with hepatitis C virus on risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in American men and women: Case-control study. Langevin S. Gastric reflux is an independent risk factor for laryngopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Karlsson A. Genomic and transcriptional alterations in lung adenocarcinoma in relation to smoking history. Cancer Res. Noordzij M. Sample size calculations: Basic principles and common pitfalls. Support Center Support Center. External link. Please review our privacy policy. Reasons for Marijuana or Cigarette Smoking. No reason. Flossing at least once Daily. Marginal Bone Loss a mesial. Marginal Bone Loss a distal.

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