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The exact origin of the MEAM1 species of Bemisia tabaci , and the reasons why it became such an important pest are still not fully known. Investigations led to the assumption that the B biotype had spread to the USA on ornamental plants that were being transported around the world. Species such as poinsettia and gerbera were highlighted as probable hosts. During the s MEAM1 was reported on every continent. Biological traits of MEAM1 implied that it had evolved within intensive agricultural regions with exposure to pesticides and modern cultural practices. These included an ability to feed and develop on a wide range of plant and crop species, a high level of fecundity and a predisposition to develop resistance to a wide range of pesticides. MEAM1 is also an effective vector of many different plant viruses which, in conjunction with its high level of polyphagy, make it extremely problematic within agricultural regions where crops may be susceptible to viruses acquired from indigenous plants. Despite B. Within these cooler regions, MEAM1 can survive within a protected environment and could feasibly spread virus diseases to new locations. It is for this reason that B. The silverleaf whitefly, formerly known as Bemisia tabaci biotype B, but now widely known as Middle East-Asia Minor 1 species was first identified as a new strain of B. It differed from the indigenous strain of B. Until , it was universally known as biotype B of B. However, Bellows et al. This decision was a contentious issue between researchers and taxonomists worldwide, because the naming of the B biotype as B. A study by Rosell et al. These Old World populations did not induce silverleaf disorders or produce similar esterase banding patterns to the B biotype. However, within the New World, the B biotype has been readily accepted as a new species, B. In the phylogenetic relationships between genotypes of B. This identified six distinct 'races' throughout the world. The study concluded that there was insufficient data to raise races to species status, but supported the recognition of the six races as an unresolved core of ungrouped genotypes under the single Bemisia tabaci Gennadius species name. As a consequence there is insufficient molecular and biological data to support the separation of B. Further research comparing mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 mtCO1 gene has demonstrated that, rather than one complex species, B. These genetic groups are composed of at least 34 morphologically indistinguishable species, which are merely separated by a minimum of 3. The decision is supported by many whitefly researchers worldwide and by the International Whitefly Symposium Network. Eggs Eggs are pear shaped with a pedicel spike at the base, approximately 0. Puparium A flat, irregular oval shape, about 0. On a smooth leaf the puparium lacks enlarged dorsal setae, but if the leaf is hairy, long dorsal setae are present. Adult Adults are approximately 1 mm long, the male slightly smaller than the female. The body and both pairs of wings are covered with a powdery, waxy secretion, white to slightly yellowish in colour. MEAM1 species is fast establishing a global presence. The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report. By it had spread throughout most of the southern states of the USA Perring et al. It was also being reported as interceptions and sporadic appearances within glasshouses in northern Europe and the UK Bedford et al. It is assumed that all these introductions have been accidental. Present legislation relates to B. Since the recent introduction of this whitefly to several of these countries, the pest has proved particularly difficult to combat because of its polyphagy, its resistance to many insecticides and its disruption of biological control programmes Prabhaker et al. Furthermore, it is also a pest of field crops in other countries in the south of the EPPO region. However, initial fears that MEAM1 species may eventually displace other whiteflies on outdoor crops in southern Europe and cause much greater problems, have so far been unfounded. Countries that already contain many begomoviruses that infect indigenous plants and weeds, and are associated with localized populations of B. MEAM1 B. This includes many glasshouse and field crops, as well as weeds. However, a study by De Courcy Williams et al. It is the progeny of these particular individuals that lead to the species as a whole being highly polyphagous. Early indication of infestation may consist of chlorotic spots caused by larval feeding, which may also be disfigured by honeydew and associated sooty moulds. Leaf curling, yellowing, mosaics or yellow-veining may also indicate the presence of whitefly-transmitted viruses. These symptoms are also observed in B. The feeding of adults and nymphs causes chlorotic spots to appear on the surface of the leaves. Depending on the level of infestation, these spots may coalesce until the whole of the leaf is yellow, apart from the area immediately around the veins. Such leaves are later shed. The honeydew produced by the feeding of the nymphs covers the underside of leaves and can cause a reduction in photosynthetic potential when colonized by moulds. Honeydew can also disfigure flowers and, in cotton, can cause problems in lint processing. Following heavy infestations, plant height, the number of internodes, and yield quality and quantity can be affected, for example, in cotton. Phytotoxic responses in many plant and crop species caused by larval feeding include severe silvering of courgette leaves, white stems in pumpkin, white streaking in leafy Brassica crops, uneven ripening of tomato fruits, reduced growth, yellowing and stem blanching in lettuce and kai choy Brassica campestris and yellow veining in carrots and honeysuckle Lonicera Bedford et al. A close observation of leaf undersides will show tiny, yellow to white larval scales. In severe infestations, when the plant is shaken, numerous small and white adult whiteflies will emerge in a cloud and quickly resettle. These symptoms do not appreciably differ from those of Trialeurodes vaporariorum , the glasshouse whitefly, which is common throughout Europe. Eggs are usually laid in circular groups, on the underside of leaves, with the broad end touching the surface and the long axis perpendicular to the leaf. They are anchored by a pedicel which is inserted into a fine slit made by the female in plant tissue, and not into stomata as is the case with many other members of the Aleyrodidae. Eggs are whitish in colour when first laid, but gradually turn brown. On hatching, the first instar, or 'crawler', is flat, oval and scale-like in shape. The first instar is the only larval stage of this whitefly which is mobile. It moves from the egg site to a suitable feeding location on the lower surface of the leaf, after which its legs are lost in the next moult and the larva becomes sessile. It does not move again throughout the remaining nymphal stages. The first three nymphal stages last days each, according to temperature. The fourth nymphal stage is termed the puparium, and is approximately 0. True pupation within the whitefly life-cycle does not occur, although the last fourth nymphal instar is typically referred to as a pupa after apolysis has been completed. Metamorphosis to adult occurs over about 6 days. The adult emerges through a 'T'-shaped rupture in the skin of the puparium and spreads its wings for several minutes before beginning to powder itself with a waxy secretion from glands on the abdomen. Copulation begins hours after emergence and takes place several times throughout the life of the adult. The life span of the female can extend to 60 days. The life of the male is generally much shorter, being between 9 and 17 days. Each female can oviposit over eggs during her lifetime, these are often arranged in an arc around the female as she rotates on her stylet. Some 11 to 15 generations can occur within 1 year. Begomoviruses cause a range of different symptoms which include yellow mosaics, yellow veining, leaf curling, stunting and vein thickening. Mansoor et al. Tomato crops throughout the world are particularly susceptible to many different begomoviruses, and in most cases exhibit yellow leaf curl symptoms. Dual infections have also been shown to occur Bedford et al. Its ability to feed on many different host plants enables whitefly-transmitted viruses to infect new plant species. This could cause greater problems to the agriculture in these areas as has already been demonstrated in the Americas. Europe has five known begomoviruses, two of which have been shown to be no longer transmissible by B. The others are two different transmissible tomato yellow leaf curl viruses that are causing major crop losses within the tomato industries of Spain, Portugal and Italy Moriones et al. Indigenous weed species have also been shown as field reservoirs for one of these tomato viruses Bedford et al. Natural enemies of whiteflies will, in most cases, have co-evolved with their prey and may, in some regions, be more efficient at controlling their native prey than an introduced one. However, it appears that most, if not all the natural enemies listed for B. Various species of predatory mites have also been shown to be effective in feeding upon Mediterranean species of B. No doubt they will also feed on MEAM1 species. A large range of natural enemies of B. Their specificity to individual members of the B. Entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi have been shown to offer much potential in controlling what has now been determined as MEAM1 species Bemisia populations Cuthbertson et al. Adults do not fly very efficiently, but once airborne, can be transported long distances by convection or by wind. All stages of this whitefly are likely to be transported within the international trade of ornamental plants and cut flowers. The international trade in poinsettia and gerbera has played a significant role in the dispersal of MEAM1 Cuthbertson, to all continents. Natural dispersal As with other species of whitefly and biotypes of B. This dispersal can occur in vast numbers when host plants become heavily infested and begin to senesce. Large 'clouds' comprising many millions of individuals have been recorded leaving a dying host crop. Dispersal is almost certainly assisted by wind. Agricultural practices Physical movement of infested plants, whether it be through plant care, harvesting or spraying, can result in adult MEAM1 dispersal from an infested plant. Movement in trade Any susceptible plant or crop, where leafy material is produced for distribution and export can act as a means of dispersing MEAM1. Seasonal plants such as poinsettia, bedding plants, grafted crop plants and cut flowers are all potential means for MEAM1 distribution. However, this usually involves dispersal of whitefly larvae and pupae rather than adults. MEAM1 species of B. In the majority of cases, this is due to viruses that the whitefly transmits between susceptible crops or acquires from indigenous host reservoirs. MEAM1 is also able to induce a phytotoxic response from a number of plant species that could cause yield loss or reduced quality produce. This includes squash silver leaf Bedford et al. All of these can affect the yield and quality of a crop and thus its market value. However, in other areas of the world where MEAM1 has appeared, it is found alongside an indigenous non-B biotype, so it is extremely difficult to determine specific economic damage. For example, MEAM1 is found alongside the K biotype in Pakistan where both biotypes transmit a disease of cotton, Cotton leaf curl virus. An estimate of 2. In , the cotton virus spread to India as did a whitefly-transmitted virus of tomato, Tomato leaf curl virus Colvin et al. This tomato virus was then reported to have spread to potato Gard et al. As seen in Pakistan, it is impossible to calculate the economic impact of MEAM1 alone in these areas. The appearance of MEAM1 within new areas is, in most cases, the result of movement of infested plant material. The movement and establishment of MEAM1 populations through this route brings along the possibility of insecticide resistance genes. This invariably leads to an increase in the use of insecticides as whitefly control becomes increasingly more difficult. This in turn can produce an ever increasing spiral in the levels of insecticide resistance and insecticide use, having a direct impact on the environment. Numerous chlorotic spots develop on the leaves of affected plants, which may also be disfigured by honeydew and associated sooty moulds. Leaf curling, yellowing, mosaics or yellow veining could indicate the presence of whitefly-transmitted viruses, and phytotoxic responses such as a severe silvering of courgette and melon leaves indicate the presence of the B biotype, the immature stages being mainly responsible for this symptom Costa et al. Other phytotoxic responses to the B biotype include mis-ripening of tomato fruits Maynard and Cantliffe, , white streaking of Brassica leaves Brown et al. They can, however, be distinguished molecularly De Barro et al. Differentiation of MEAM1 from other whitefly species on the basis of adult morphology is often difficult, although close observation of adult eye morphology may often show differences in ommatidial arrangements between some species. At rest, MEAM1 species has wings more closely pressed to the body than Trialeurodes vaporariorum , which is a larger whitefly and more triangular in appearance. MEAM1 species has an irregular 'pancake-like' oval shape, oblique sides and shorter, finer setae. Although the number of enlarged setae in the B biotype and wax rods in T. The length of caudal setae can be used to distinguish some Bemisia species. For more information on the identification of B. Due to the variable regulations around de registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label. Cultural Control Intercropping practices using non-hosts have been used in many countries aiming to reduce numbers of whiteflies on specific crops. However, intercropping with susceptible crops can promote whitefly populations, by offering a greater leaf area for feeding. Weed species can play an important role in harbouring whiteflies between crop plantings and attention should be paid to removing these in advance of planting susceptible crops. Weeds also often harbour whitefly-transmitted viruses Bedford et al. Cultural control is generally much more effective where whiteflies are physical pests rather than virus vectors. Host-Plant Resistance The development of transgenic resistant plant and crop species through genetic engineering must be considered and accepted as a future method of control where whitefly-transmitted viruses are already endemic and causing severe crop losses Wilson, ; Raman and Altman, Traditional sources of resistance have been used successfully for the control of other whitefly species. Chemical Control The following active ingredients have been reported as effective in controlling MEAM1 species worldwide: bifenthrin, buprofezin, imidacloprid, fenpropathrin, amitraz, fenoxycarb, deltamethrin, azadirachtin, pymetrozine. MEAM1 has been documented as being able to exhibit resistance to all groups of pesticide that have been developed for its control Cahill et al. A rotation of insecticides that offer no cross-resistance must therefore be used to control infestations. A new group of environmentally safer insecticides that effectively kill whitefly by a physical mode of action are appearing on the market in many countries. These products do not have a specific active ingredient, but appear to utilise surfactant-like properties to overcome the protective waxes on whitefly larvae and adults. IPM The increased fecundity and polyphagous habit of MEAM1 species has exacerbated many control problems in field and glasshouse crops worldwide, compounded by insecticide resistance. It appears that no single control treatment can be used on a long-term basis against this pest, and that approaches should be integrated to achieve an effective level of control. IPM appears to offer the best option for controlling MEAM1 infestations without causing contamination of the environment. Beneficial insects are used alongside chemicals that offer a high level of selectivity, such as insect growth regulators. However, if whitefly-transmitted viruses are present, it is unlikely that the threshold of whitefly vectors would ever be reduced to a level where virus transmission would cease by using these methods, because MEAM1 is such an efficient viral vector. Plant and crop species that exhibit a high level of resistance to both vector and virus must also be considered when designing an IPM system. Entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi have been shown to be successfully tank-mixed with several chemical products for use in eradication programmes against what has now been deemed as MEAM1 species in the UK Cuthbertson et al. In countries where MEAM 1 species is not already present, the enforcement of strict phytosanitary regulations as required for B. Particular attention is needed for consignments from countries where certain B. These viruses are also transmitted by MEAM1. Ahmed, M. Use of consensus sequences and genetic networks to identify members of the Bemisia tabaci cryptic species complex in Egypt and Syria. Journal of Applied Entomology, 7 , Evol, Distribution and identity of biotypes of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae in member countries of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Australian Journal of Entomology, 37 3 ; 8 ref. Bemisia tabaci: a statement of species status. Annual Review of Entomology, Bartlett PW, Experience of polyphagous alien pests of protected crops in Great Britain. Bulletin OEPP, Bayhan, E. Host range, distribution, and natural enemies of Bemisia tabaci 'B biotype' Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae in Turkey. Journal of Pest Science, 79 4 , Geminivirus transmission and biological characterisation of Bemisia tabaci Gennadius biotypes from different geographic regions. 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Scientia Agricola, 65 6 , Ulusoy MR; Bayhan E, A new whitefly species on vegetable fields in the east Mediterranean region of Turkey: Silverleaf Whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring Homoptera: Aleyrodidae. Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi, 27 1 Villevieille M; Lecoq H, Phytoma, Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 96 1 ; many ref. Wilson TMA, Strategies to protect crop plants against viruses: pathogen-derived resistance blossoms. Analysis of genetic diversity among different geographical populations and determination of biotypes of Bemisia tabaci in China. Journal of Applied Entomology, 3 : Journal of Applied Entomology. Phylogenetic analysis of Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae populations from cotton plants in Pakistan, China, and Egypt. Journal of Pest Science. Molecular identification of the biotype of whitefly Bemisia tabaci inhabiting the eastern region of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Biological Sciences. Identification of whitefly Bemicia tabaci Genn. 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The introduction of the exotic Q biotype of Bemisia tabaci from the Mediterranean region into China on ornamental crops. Florida Entomologist. Regional distribution, insecticide resistance, and reciprocal crosses between the A and B biotypes of Bemisia tabaci. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. Cuthbertson A G S, Genetic structure of the invasive pest Bemisia tabaci: evidence of limited but persistent genetic differentiation in glasshouse populations. Tomato yellow leaf curl virus can be acquired and transmitted by Bemisia tabaci Gennadius from tomato fruit. A new silverleaf-inducing biotype Ms of Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae indigenous to the islands of the south-west Indian Ocean. Eight new state records of aleyrodine whiteflies found in Clark County, Nevada and three newly described taxa Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae, Aleyrodinae. Insecta Mundi. EPPO Global database. First report of Sida micrantha mosaic virus in Phaseolus vulgaris in Brazil. A novel strain of pepper leafroll virus infecting common bean and soybean in Ecuador. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. Physalis angulata: a new natural host of Tomato chlorosis virus in Brazil. Journal of Economic Entomology. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. Biotype determination of Spanish populations of Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. Hasan H S, Journal of Entomology. Insect Science. Identification and geographical distribution of Bemisia tabaci gennadius and its relationship with begomovirales diseases intomato Solanum lycopersicum L. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research. First report of Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus in California and Arizona, in association with Cucurbit leaf crumple virus and Squash leaf curl virus. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology. Scientia Agricultura Sinica. Biocontrol Science and Technology. First report of Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus on melon in China. Acta Phytophylacica Sinica. Status of yellow mosaic virus and whitefly Bemisia tabaci biotypes on mungbean in Southern Karnataka. Legume Research. Diversity and distribution of cryptic species of the Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae complex in Pakistan. First report of Tomato chlorosis virus infecting tomato in single and mixed infections with Tomato yellow leaf curl virus in Cuba. An extensive survey of Bemisia tabaci Homoptera: Aleyrodidae in agricultural ecosystems in Florida. First report of sida mottle Alagoas virus infecting Passiflora edulis in Brazil. Neotropical Entomology. First report of Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus in cucurbits in Florida. Occurrence of a strain of Texas pepper virus in tabasco and habanero pepper in Costa Rica. Report of B-biotype whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius in northern Karnataka. Environment and Ecology. Ragab A, Distribution and dynamics of Bemisia tabaci invasive biotypes in central China. Pest Management and Economic Zoology. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia. Microsatellites reveal widespread predominance of an invasive over an indigenous Bemisia tabaci in Venezuela. Ryckewaert P, Alauzet C, The natural enemies of Bemisia argentifolii in Martinique. Spatial and host-plant partitioning between coexisting Bemisia tabaci cryptic species in Tunisia. Population Ecology. Encarsia species Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae of Australia and the Pacific Islands attacking Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae - a pictorial key and descriptions of four new species. Survey of Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae biotypes in Italy with the description of a new biotype T from Euphorbia characias. Distribution patterns of the Q and B biotypes of Bemisia tabaci in the Mediterranean Basin based on microsatellite variation. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. Tomato leaf curl geminivirus in Australia: occurrence, detection, sequence diversity and host range. Plant Pathology. First report of Tomato chlorosis virus infecting tomato in Georgia. Distribution of tomato-infecting begomoviruses and Bemisia tabaci biotypes in Morocco. Bemisia tabaci biotype Q dominates other biotypes across China. Diagnosis of the whitefly 'in Ecuador'. La Granja. First report of tomato yellow leaf curl virus in Louisiana. Insecticide resistance in Bemisia tabaci from Cyprus. New Disease Reports. One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using. Toggle navigation. Don't need the entire report? Generate a print friendly version containing only the sections you need. Generate report. Expand all sections Collapse all sections. Summary of Invasiveness Top of page The exact origin of the MEAM1 species of Bemisia tabaci , and the reasons why it became such an important pest are still not fully known. Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature Top of page The silverleaf whitefly, formerly known as Bemisia tabaci biotype B, but now widely known as Middle East-Asia Minor 1 species was first identified as a new strain of B. Description Top of page Eggs Eggs are pear shaped with a pedicel spike at the base, approximately 0. Distribution Table Top of page The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. Paul's wort Asteraceae Unknown Kijima et al. Symptoms Top of page Early indication of infestation may consist of chlorotic spots caused by larval feeding, which may also be disfigured by honeydew and associated sooty moulds. Biology and Ecology Top of page Eggs are usually laid in circular groups, on the underside of leaves, with the broad end touching the surface and the long axis perpendicular to the leaf. Notes on Natural Enemies Top of page Natural enemies of whiteflies will, in most cases, have co-evolved with their prey and may, in some regions, be more efficient at controlling their native prey than an introduced one. Means of Movement and Dispersal Top of page Adults do not fly very efficiently, but once airborne, can be transported long distances by convection or by wind. Environmental Impact Top of page The appearance of MEAM1 within new areas is, in most cases, the result of movement of infested plant material. Detection and Inspection Top of page Numerous chlorotic spots develop on the leaves of affected plants, which may also be disfigured by honeydew and associated sooty moulds. Prevention and Control Top of page Due to the variable regulations around de registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Phytosanitary Measures In countries where MEAM 1 species is not already present, the enforcement of strict phytosanitary regulations as required for B. References Top of page Ahmed, M. CO;2 Jahan, S. Pesticide Science, 42 2 Martin JH, Compendium record. Distribution Maps Top of page You can pan and zoom the map. Select a dataset I want to see the distribution of this species based on the records CABI believe are most reliable. I want to see other datasets from third-party sources. Map Legends Display By. Map Filters Clear all filters Extent. Unsupported Web Browser: One or more of the features that are needed to show you the maps functionality are not available in the web browser that you are using. Please consider upgrading your browser to the latest version or installing a new browser. Ok Cancel. Top of page. Berry et al. Brown et al. Shatters et al. Tahiri et al. EPPO Delatte et al. Ragab Saleh et al. EPPO Zhang et al. Li RuMei et al. He YuXian et al. Teng Xi et al. Hsieh ChiaHung et al. Lin KeJian et al. Ahmed et al. Ma DeYing et al. Gupta et al. Reddy et al. EPPO Shoorcheh et al. Bedford et al. Al-Shehi and Khan Alhudaib et al. EPPO Bayhan et al. Delatte et al. Papayiannis et al. Beitia et al. Cahill et al. Bartlett Bedford et al. McKenzie et al. Frewin et al. Costa et al. Sundaraj et al. Dooley et al. McGrath et al. Barro et al. Gunning et al. Schmidt et al. EPPO Rodrigues et al. Sousa et al. Valarezo et al. Bayhan et al. Kijima et al. Ben et al. Jahan et al. Hsieh et al. Cabanillas et al. Cuthbertson and Walters ; Cuthbertson et al. Cuthbertson et al. Pest or symptoms not visible to the naked eye but usually visible under light microscope.

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