Children Have Sex With Animals

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Children Have Sex With Animals
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Sexual coercion among non-human animals
This article is about sexual coercion among non-human animals. For sexual coercion among humans, see Rape .
Not to be confused with Reproductive coercion .


^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Smuts, Barbara B. Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications . Advances in the Study of Behavior 22 (1993)

^ Stamos, David N., Evolution and the Big Questions: Sex, Race, Religion, and Other Matters , John Wiley & Sons, 2011; Alcock, John, The Triumph of Sociobiology , Oxford University Press, 2003, p.207-9.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Han, C. S. & Jablonski, P. G. Female genitalia concealment promotes intimate male courtship in a water strider . PLoS ONE 4, e5793 (2009).

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gage, M. J. G., Parker, G. a, Nylin, S. & Wiklund, C. Sexual selection and speciation in mammals, butterflies and spiders . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 269, 2309–16 (2002).

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Grayson, K. L., De Lisle, S. P., Jackson, J. E., Black, S. J. & Crespi, E. J. Behavioral and physiological female responses to male sex ratio bias in a pond-breeding amphibian . Frontiers in Zoology 9, 24 (2012).

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Garner, S. R., Bortoluzzi, R. N., Heath, D. D. & Neff, B. D. Sexual conflict inhibits female mate choice for major histocompatibility complex dissimilarity in Chinook salmon. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 277, 885–94 (2010).

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rönn, J., Katvala, M. & Arnqvist, G. Coevolution between harmful male genitalia and female resistance in seed beetles . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 10921–5 (2007).

^ Jump up to: a b Muller, M. N., Kahlenberg, S. M., Emery Thompson, M. & Wrangham, R. W. Male coercion and the costs of promiscuous mating for female chimpanzees . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 274, 1009–14 (2007).

^ Jump up to: a b c d Fury, C. A., Ruckstuhl, K. E. & Harrison, P. L. Spatial and social sexual segregation patterns in indo-pacific bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops aduncus ) . PLoS ONE 8, e52987 (2013).

^ Jump up to: a b c Valero, A., Macías Garcia, C. & Magurran, A. E. Heterospecific harassment of native endangered fishes by invasive guppies in Mexico . Biology letters 4, 149–52 (2008).

^ McFarland, R. & Majolo, B. Grooming coercion and the post-conflict trading of social services in wild Barbary macaque s. PLoS ONE 6, e26893 (2011).

^ Nitsch, F., Stueckle, S., Stahl, D. & Zinner, D. Copulation patterns in captive hamadryas baboons: a quantitative analysis . Primates; journal of primatology 52, 373–83 (2011).

^ Knott, C. D., Emery Thompson, M., Stumpf, R. M. & McIntyre, M. H. Female reproductive strategies in orangutans, evidence for female choice and counterstrategies to infanticide in a species with frequent sexual coercion . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 277, 105–13 (2010).

^ Jump up to: a b c Han, C. S. & Jablonski, P. G. Male water striders attract predators to intimidate females into copulation . Nature Communications 1, 52 (2010).

^ Hunt, J. H.; Richard, F.-J. (2013-08-17). "Intracolony vibroacoustic communication in social insects". Insectes Sociaux . International Union for the Study of Social Insects (IUSSI) Springer . 60 (4): 403–417. doi : 10.1007/s00040-013-0311-9 . ISSN 0020-1812 . S2CID 14658531 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Shine, R., Langkilde, T. & Mason, R. T. Courtship tactics in garter snakes: how do a male’s morphology and behaviour influence his mating success? Animal Behaviour 67, 477–483 (2004)

^ Jump up to: a b c Puniamoorthy, N., Su, K. F.-Y. & Meier, R. Bending for love: losses and gains of sexual dimorphisms are strictly correlated with changes in the mounting position of sepsid flies (Sepsidae: Diptera). BMC Evolutionary Biology 8, 155 (2008).

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Bergsten, J. & Miller, K. B. Phylogeny of diving beetles reveals a coevolutionary arms race between the sexes . PLoS ONE 2, e522 (2007).

^ Jump up to: a b c Brennan, P. L. R. et al. Coevolution of male and female genital morphology in waterfowl . PLoS ONE 2, e418 (2007).

^ Jump up to: a b c d Mazzi, D., Kesäniemi, J., Hoikkala, A. & Klappert, K. Sexual conflict over the duration of copulation in Drosophila montana: why is longer better? BMC Evolutionary Biology 9, 132 (2009).

^ Jump up to: a b c d Han, C. S., Jablonski, P. G., Kim, B. & Park, F. C. Size-assortative mating and sexual size dimorphism are predictable from simple mechanics of mate-grasping behavior . BMC Evolutionary Biology 10, 359 (2010).

^ Jump up to: a b c Zehr, J. L. NIH Public Access. 41, 101–112 (2005).

^ Jump up to: a b c d Rivera, a C. & Andrés, J. a Male coercion and convenience polyandry in a calopterygid damselfly . Journal of insect science (Online) 2, 14 (2002).

^ Jump up to: a b Pizzari, T. Indirect partner choice through manipulation of male behaviour by female fowl, Gallus gallus domesticus . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 268, 181–6 (2001).

^ Cunningham, E. J. A. & Cheng, K. M. Biases in sperm use in the mallard : no evidence for selection by females based on sperm genotype . (1999).

^ Jump up to: a b c d Grueter, C. C., Chapais, B. & Zinner, D. Evolution of Multilevel Social Systems in Nonhuman Primates and Humans . International journal of primatology 33, 1002–1037 (2012).

^ Jump up to: a b c Darden, S. K., James, R., Ramnarine, I. W. & Croft, D. P. Social implications of the battle of the sexes: sexual harassment disrupts female sociality and social recognition . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 276, 2651–6 (2009).

^ Brennan, P. L. R., Clark, C. J. & Prum, R. O. Explosive eversion and functional morphology of the duck penis supports sexual conflict in waterfowl genitalia . Proceedings: Biological Sciences 277, 1309–14 (2010).

^ Jump up to: a b Johannesson, K. , Saltin, S. H., Duranovic, I., Havenhand, J. N. & Jonsson, P. R. Indiscriminate males: mating behaviour of a marine snail compromised by a sexual conflict? PLoS ONE 5, e12005 (2010).

^ Darden, S. K. & Croft, D. P. Male harassment drives females to alter habitat use and leads to segregation of the sexes . Biology letters 4, 449–51 (2008).

^ "Apes of Wrath" . Discover Magazine . Retrieved 2021-02-04 .


Sexual coercion among animals is the use of violence, threats, harassment, and other tactics to help them forcefully copulate . [1] Such behavior has been compared to sexual assault , including rape , among humans. [2]

In nature, males and females usually differ in reproductive fitness optima. [3] Males generally prefer to maximize their number of offspring, and therefore their number of mates; females, on the other hand, tend to care more for their offspring and have fewer mates. [4] Because of this, there are generally more males available to mate at a given time, making females a limited resource. [4] [5] This leads males to evolve aggressive mating behaviors which can help them acquire mates. [5]

Sexual coercion has been observed in many species, including mammals, birds, insects, and fish. [6] While sexual coercion does help increase male fitness , it is very often costly to females. [5] Sexual coercion has been observed to have consequences, such as intersexual coevolution, speciation, and sexual dimorphism . [4] [7]

Harassment is a technique used by males of many species to force females to submit to mating. [8] It has been observed in numerous species, including mammals, birds, insects and fish. [6] Aggression and harassment have been documented in the males of guppies ( Poecilia reticulata ), [4] bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops aduncus ), botos ( Inia geoffrensis ), dusky dolphins ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus ), Hector's dolphins ( Cephalorhynchus hectori ), grizzly bears , polar bears , and ungulates. [9] It is also seen in Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ), [6] red-spotted newts ( Notophthalmus viridescens ), and seed-eating true bugs ( Neacoryphus spp.). [10] Furthermore, it is prevalent in spider monkeys , [1] wild Barbary macaques ( Macaca sylvanus ) and many other primates. [11]

In basically all major primate taxa, aggression is used by the dominant males when herding females and keeping them away from other males. [1] In hamadryas baboons , the males often bite the females’ necks and threaten them. [12] Wild chimpanzees can charge at females, shake branches, hit, slap, kick, pound, drag, and bite them. Orangutans are among the most forceful of mammals. Bornean orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus ) exhibited aggression in almost 90 percent of their copulations, including when the females were not resisting. [13] A possible explanation for aggressive behaviors in primates is that it is a way for males to train females to be afraid of them and be more likely to surrender to future sexual advances. [1]

Males may also use more indirect techniques to mate with females, such as intimidation . While most female water striders ( Gerridae ) have their genitalia exposed, females of the water strider species Gerris gracilicornis have evolved a shield over their genitals. As a result, males cannot physically coerce females because mating is difficult unless the female exposes her genitalia. Therefore, males intimidate females into mating by attracting predators; they tap on the water's surface and create ripples that catch the attention of predatory fish. From there, it is in the best interest of the female to mate, and as quickly as possible, to avoid being eaten by predators. Typical mating positions of water striders have the females on the bottom, closer to predators, so the risk of predation is much higher for them. Females succumb to copulation to get males to cease signaling to predators. [14] [15]

Another indirect form of sexual coercion occurs in red-sided garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis . When males "court" females, they line their bodies up to the females' and produce caudocephalic waves, which are a series of muscle contractions that travel through their bodies from tail to head. The exact reason for this behavior is unknown, but some studies show that it relates to stress. Females have nonrespiratory air sacs containing anoxic air, and the waving pushes this air into her lungs. The resulting stress causes her cloaca to open, and aids the male in inserting his hemipenis . The stronger and more frequent the caudocephalic waves and the closer the male's cloaca to the female's, the more likely the male is to mate successfully. [16]

Males of certain species have evolved mating behaviors in which they forcefully attempt to mate with and inseminate females, often employing grasping techniques. These male grasping devices exist to increase the duration of copulation and restrict females from mating with other males. They are in some ways a form of mate guarding . While some males have evolved different types of modifications to aid in grasping, others just grab females and attempt to force copulation.

One type of grasping modification is spiky male genitalia . In seed beetles (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), males possess sclerotized spines on their genitalia. These spines are used during copulation to help overcome female resistance and penetrate into their copulatory duct. In addition to aiding penetration, these spines promote the passage of seminal fluids, and act as an anchor to keep the female from fleeing. Furthermore, spiny genitals can injure the females and make them less likely to remate. [7] Sepsidae fly males have modifications on their forelegs to help them grasp onto female wing bases. These modifications include cuticular outgrowths, indentations, and bristles, and males use them to secure themselves onto females after jumping on them. Once the males grab on, a struggle ensues akin to a rodeo , where males try to hold on while females violently shake them off. [17]

Another type of modification is found in male diving beetles (of the family Dytiscidae), who are equipped with suction cup structures on their front legs. They use these to grab passing females and attach to their dorsal surfaces. To get the females to submit, males shake the females violently and keep them submerged underwater (diving beetles cannot go long without atmospheric oxygen). Unable to get air, female diving beetles submit to the male's advances in order to avoid drowning (and they lose the energy to resist). Once the males attach, copulation can occur. [18]

Male waterfowl have developed another modification; while most male birds have no external genitalia, male waterfowl (Aves: Anatidae ) have a phallus (length 1.5–4.0 centimetres [0.59–1.57 in]). Most birds mate with the males balancing on top of the females and touching cloacas in a “cloacal kiss”; this makes forceful insemination very difficult. The phallus that male waterfowl have evolved everts out of their bodies (in a clockwise coil) and aids in inseminating females without their cooperation. [19]

Another such technique is having a "lock-like" mechanism, found in Drosophila montana , dogs, wolves, and pigs. Towards the end of copulation, females struggle to try to dislodge the males, whose genital organs take much longer to deflate than females do; the locking (most commonly known in canids as a "tie") allows the males to copulate for as long as they need to until they are finished. In dogs, the male has a knot in his penis that gets engorged with blood and ties the female, locking them together during copulation, until the act is complete. Male dogs have evolved this mechanism during mating in order to prevent other males from penetration whilst they are and the use of the tie enables them to be more likely to inseminate the female and produce a healthy litter of pups. Breaking this "tie" can be physically harmful to both females and males. [20]

Males of many species simply grab the females and force a mating. Coercive mating is very common in water striders ( Gerridae ) because in most of the species, the female genitalia are often exposed and easily accessible to males. [3] Without any courtship behavior, males initiate by forcefully trying to mount the females. Carrying the males on their backs is energetically costly to females, so they try to resist and throw off the males. The males fight back even harder and use their forelegs to tightly grasp the female's thorax and keep them from escaping. [21] The males then forcefully insert their genitalia into the female vulvar opening. [3] In the newt species Notophthalmus viridescens , males carry out a courtship behavior called amplexus . It consists of males capturing females that do not want to mate with them and using their hind limbs to grasp the females by their pectoral regions. [5]

Male guppies ( Poecilia reticulata ) have been observed to forcefully copulate with females by trying to insert their gonopodium (male sex organ) into female's genital pores, whether or not they are accepting. [6] Sometimes, male guppies also try to forcefully mate with Skiffia bilineata (goodeid) females, which resemble guppy females and tend to share the same habitat, even when guppy females are available. A possible explanation for this is the deeper genital cavity of S. bilineata , which stimulates the males more than when mating with guppy females. [10]

Males of some species are able to immobilize females and force copulation. In pigs and boars, males grab females and maneuver the pelvis to lift the vaginal opening and facilitate copulation. The stimulation following intromission causes the female to be immobilized. The male can then freely continue copulation without worrying about the female escaping. [22] Immobilization of the female also occurs in muscovy ducks .

Grasping and/or grappling mating situations have also been documented in Calopteryx haemorrhoidalis haemorrhoidalis ( Odonata ), [23] fallow deer ( Dama dama ), [6] wild orangutans (Smuts 1993), wild chimpanzees, [1] water voles (semi-aquatic rats) Arvicola amphibius , [22] feral fowl, [24] mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ), [25] hamadryas baboons [26] and many other primates, [1] coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ), [6] and others.

In some mammal species, mostly nonhuman primates, [ citation needed ] it is common for males to commit infanticide to mate with females. This happens often in species that live in groups, such as Old and New World monkeys, apes, prosimians, and hamadryas baboons. [26] There is usually a single breeding male in a group, and when an outside male aggressively takes over, he kills off all of the young offspring. The males kill infants that are not their own to assert their strength and position, and mate with the females. [1] Sometimes, multiple males will invade a troop and gang up on females, killing their offspring and subsequently mating with them. This occurs in spider monkeys , red-backed squirrel monkeys , chimpanzees, and red howlers . [1]

In the newt species Notophthalmus viridescens , the males rub off hormonal secretions onto the skin of the females they are courting. These hormones have been shown to make the female more receptive to mating with the male. When the male deposits the secretions, he detaches from the female and releases a spermatophore (containing spermatozoa). It is then the female's decision to either accept it and pick it up or reject it by running away; these hormones make her more likely to accept it. [5] [ relevant? ]

Another form of coercion is male mate guarding, used to keep females from mating with other males, and often involves aggression. [8] Guarding allows the males to ensure their paternity. A classic example occurs in diving beetles, family Dytiscidae. After copulation, males continue to guard females for up to six hours. They hold them underwater, occasionally tilting them up for air. [18] Guarding also occurs in water striders where, once males complete their sperm transfer, they often remain on top of the females. This guarding duration varies, lasting from several minutes to several weeks. The purpose of such long guarding periods is for the males to see the females lay their eggs and be assured that the offspring are theirs. [21] This behavior also occurs in hamadryas baboons ( Papio hamadryas ), where the leader males practice intensive mate guarding. [26] In Drosophila Montana, studies have shown that following mate guarding, the chances of a female mating with or being inseminated by another male were greatly diminished. This shows that the mate guarding tactic can be very effective. [20]

Males of some species use bodily fluids, such as seminal fluid from their ejaculate, to aid in the coercion of females. Seminal fluid in males of Drosophila melanogaster may contain chemicals that increase the amount of time it takes for females to remate, decrease the length of successive matings, or keep her from remating at all. The less a female mates with other males after copulation with a male, the more likely it is for him to ensure his paternity. These chemicals may also serve to increase the female's reproductive success, but at the cost of decreased longevity and immune response. [20]

In many species, seminal fluid can be used as a sort of mating plug. Males of these species
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