CHRISTIAAN SNOUCK HURGRONJE
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The Arab Revolt (Arabic: الثورة العربية al-Thawra al-'Arabiyya), also known as the Great Arab Revolt (الثورة العربية الكبرى al-Thawra al-'Arabiyya al-Kubrā), was an armed uprising by the Hashemite-led Arabs of the Hejaz against the Ottoman Empire amidst the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. On the basis of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, exchanged between Henry McMahon of the United Kingdom and Hussein bin Ali of the Kingdom of Hejaz, the rebellion against the ruling Turks was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916. The primary goal of the Arab rebels was to establish an independent and unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden, which the British government had promised to recognize. The Sharifian Army, led by Hussein and the Hashemites with backing from the British military's Egyptian Expeditionary Force, successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the Hejaz and Transjordan. By 1918, the rebels had captured Damascus and proclaimed the Arab Kingdom of Syria, a short-lived monarchy that was led by Hussein's son Faisal I. Having covertly signed the Sykes–Picot Agreement with the French Third Republic, the British reneged on their promise to support the Arabs' establishment of a singular Arab state. Instead, the Arab-majority Ottoman territories of the Middle East were broken up into a number of League of Nations mandates, jointly controlled by the British and the French. Amidst the partition of the Ottoman Empire, the defeated Ottomans' mainland in Anatolia came under a joint military occupation by the victorious Allies. This was gradually broken by the Turkish War of Independence, which established the present-day Republic of Turkey.
In connection with: Arab Revolt
Title combos: Arab Revolt
Description combos: Aleppo Arab defeated expelled al to Thawra Arab was mainland establishment that of The Empire Arab Revolt الثورة Mecca Ottoman an was ruling by the military by the armed government Aleppo Eastern to French against initiated the theatre the Hejaz the العربية by the Force that French was Great Kingdom World Arab the broken Kingdom proclaimed The Hejaz military and had Aden basis majority Transjordan the of was an Arab to Revolt العربية Hejaz Arabs French 1916 of Amidst the proclaimed
The Aceh War (Indonesian: Perang Aceh), also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1904), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Kingdom of the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between representatives of Aceh and the United States in Singapore during early 1873. The war was part of a series of conflicts in the late 19th century that consolidated Dutch rule over modern-day Indonesia. The campaign drew controversy in the Netherlands as photographs and accounts of the death toll were reported. Isolated bloody insurgencies continued as late as 1914 and less violent forms of Acehnese resistance continued to persist until World War II and the Japanese occupation.
In connection with: Aceh War
Title combos: Aceh War
Description combos: Isolated Aceh in to accounts Netherlands and between Indonesian insurgencies The triggered of toll as War the less Indonesian Infidel of series the as representatives Perang triggered States as Indonesian between of Kingdom reported between War 1873 occupation in as War was drew of Aceh the 1904 War 19th The II Kingdom were The death were and The of between the continued the The Infidel reported Sultanate violent which The War the part The 1873 to War the Dutch Singapore Aceh
White slavery (also white slave trade or white slave trafficking) refers to the enslavement of any of the world's European ethnic groups throughout human history, whether perpetrated by non-Europeans or by other Europeans. Slavery in ancient Rome was frequently dependent on a person's socio-economic status and national affiliation, and thus included European slaves. It was also common for European people to be enslaved and traded in the Muslim world; European women, in particular, were highly sought-after to be concubines in the harems of many Muslim rulers. Examples of such slavery conducted in Islamic empires include the Trans-Saharan slave trade, the Barbary slave trade, the Ottoman slave trade, and the Black Sea slave trade, among others. Many different types of white people were enslaved. On the European continent under feudalism, there were various forms of status applying to people (such as serf, bordar, villein, vagabond, and slave) who were indentured or forced to labour without pay. During the Arab slave trade, Europeans were among those traded by the Arabs. The term Saqaliba (Arabic: صقالبة) was often used in medieval Arabic sources to refer specifically to Slavs being traded by the Arabs, but it could also refer more broadly to Central, Southern, and Eastern Europeans who were also traded by the Arabs, as well as all European slaves in some Muslim-controlled regions like Spain, including those abducted from raids on Spanish Christian kingdoms. During the era of the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), the majority of slaves were Europeans taken from European coasts and during conflicts. Similarly, the Ottoman slave trade that included European captives was often fueled by raids into European territories or were taken as children in the form of a blood tax from the families of citizens of conquered territories to serve the empire for a variety of functions. In the mid-19th century, the term 'white slavery' was used to describe the Christian slaves that were sold into the Barbary slave trade in North Africa.
In connection with: White slavery
Title combos: White slavery
Description combos: During European the among the Muslim were rulers families from being in specifically taken Arabs feudalism world the many trade in in families were of of European or ethnic enslavement Europeans world Saharan on the person trade groups Muslim others among in Eastern blood national white of were trade more the European history White among included women Barbary the being by era but to by on Arabic In who status sources in On to to fueled often from being Christian to
Christiaan is a Dutch, Flemish, and Afrikaans male given name. An archaic spelling of the name was Christiaen with "ae" to indicate the long sound "a". People with the name include: Christiaan van Adrichem (1533–1585), Dutch Catholic priest and theological writer Christiaan Andriessen (1775–1846), Dutch painter Christiaan Bailey (born 1981), American surfer Christiaan Bakkes (born 1965), South African writer Christiaan Bangeman Huygens (1772–1857), Dutch diplomat and civil servant Christiaan Barnard (1922–2001), South African cardiac surgeon known for his heart transplants Christiaan Basson (born 1982), South African golfer Christiaan Berger (1911–1965), Dutch sprinter Christiaan Beyers (1869–1914), South African Boer general during the Second Boer War Christiaan Bezuidenhout (born 1994), South African golfer Christiaan Frederick Beyers Naudé (1915–2004), South African cleric, theologian, and anti-apartheid activist Christiaen Jansz van Bieselingen (1558–1600), Dutch genre and portrait painter Christiaan Boers (1889–1942), Dutch Royal Netherlands Army captain during World War II Christiaan Both (1895–1977), Dutch sport shooter Christiaan Both (ecologist) (born 1969), Dutch ecologist Christiaan Brosch (1878–1969), Dutch sport shooter Christiaan Bruil (born 1970), Dutch badminton player Christiaan Brunings (1736–1805), Dutch hydraulic engineer Christiaan Cicek (born 1988), Dutch football striker Christiaan Coevershoff (1595–1659), Dutch painter Christiaan Cornelissen (1864–1942), Dutch syndicalist writer, economist, and trade unionist Christiaen van Couwenbergh (1604–1667), Dutch historical/allegorical painter Christiaan de Bruin (born 1990), South African rugby player Christiaan de Wet (1854–1922), South African Boer general, rebel leader and politician Christiaan De Wilde (born 1960s), Belgian businessman Christiaan du Toit (1901–1982), South African military commander Christiaan Eijkman (1858–1930), Dutch physician, physiologist and Nobel Prize laureate Christiaan Justus Enschedé (1788–1829), Dutch newspaper editor and printer Christiaan Freeling (born 1947), Dutch game designer and inventor of abstract strategy games Christiaan Willem Fokma (1927–2012), Dutch sculptor and ceramist Christiaan van der Goes (1530s–1600), Dutch nobleman, schout of Delft Christiaan Groepe (1789–1886), Khoi military leader in the Cape Colony Christiaan Harmse (born 1973), South African hammer thrower Christiaan Heij (born 1950s), Dutch mathematician Christiaan Hendrik Muller (1865–1945), South African Boer War general Christiaan Huijgens (1897–1963), Dutch long-distance runner Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695), Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor Christiaan Jonker (born 1986), South African cricketer Christiaan Josi (1768–1828), Dutch engraver and art dealer Christiaan Kok (born 1971), Zimbabwean cricketer Christiaan Kriens (1881–1934), Belgian-born American composer, pianist, violinist and conductor Christiaan Emil Marie Küpper (1883–1931), Dutch artist, founder of De Stijl, better known as "Theo van Doesburg" Christiaan Kuyvenhoven (born 1985), Dutch pianist Christiaan Lans (1789–1843), Dutch colonial head of the Dutch Gold Coast 1834-36 Christiaan Frederik Louis Leipoldt (1880–1947), South African poet, dramatist, medical doctor, reporter and food expert Christiaan van Lennep (1887–1955), Dutch tennis player Christiaan Lindemans (1912–1946), Dutch double agent during the Second World War Christiaan Luyckx (1623–c.1675), Flemish still life painter Christiaan Moltzer (1875–1945), Dutch sport shooter Christiaan Monden (born 1975), Dutch sociologist Christiaan Müller (1690–1763), German-born Dutch organ builder Christiaan Nagel (born 1982), South African-born British street artist Christiaan Neumeier (1921–1991), Dutch rower Christiaan Benjamin Nieuwenhuis (1863–1922), Dutch photographer in the Dutch East Indies Christiaan Offringa (fl. 2001–2005), Dutch curler Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836), Dutch mycologist Christiaan Pförtner (born 1966), German football midfielder Christiaan van Pol (1752–1813), Dutch flower painter Christiaan Roets (born 1980), South African-born Welsh rugby player Christiaan Scholtz (born 1970), South African rugby player Christiaan Sepp (c. 1710 – 1775), German-born Dutch entomologist and artist Christiaan Slieker (1861–1945), Dutch early film exhibitor Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (1857–1936), Dutch scholar of Oriental cultures and languages Christiaan Snyman (born 1996), Namibian cricketer Christiaan Steyn (1897–?), South African sprinter Christiaen Striep (1634–1673), Dutch still-life painter Christiaan Timmermans (born 1941), Dutch law professor and judge Christiaan Tonnet (1902–1946), Dutch equestrian and modern pentathlete Christiaan Tonnis (born 1956), German symbolist/realist painter, draftsman, and video artist Christiaan Maurits van den Heever (1902–1957), Afrikaans novelist, poet, essayist, and biographer Christiaan Van Vuuren (born 1982), Australian actor and video blogger Christiaan Varenhorst (born 1990), Dutch beach volleyball player Christiaan van Velzen (born 1932), Dutch sport shooter Christiaen van Vianen (1598–1671), Dutch silversmith and draughtsman Christiaan Viljoen (born 1961), South African tennis player
In connection with: Christiaan
Description combos: and Christiaan 1880 African rugby African 1788 Coast actor Christiaan Christiaan Christiaan pianist curler 1789 anti cricketer Flemish name poet and Bruin football Dutch leader Christiaan Christiaan de laureate allegorical African is De Army editor Cicek African and the Christiaen captain South African languages African Christiaan de hammer and sport and 1922 1921 street Christiaan the writer South 1805 born 1858 rugby reporter and 1921 as fl 1922 Christiaan Colony Eijkman Fokma newspaper Dutch 1990 and Bailey American indicate Bangeman Huygens
Chattel slavery was a major institution and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and traditional society. The main sources of slaves were wars and politically organized enslavement expeditions in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Central Europe, Southeast Europe, the Western Mediterranean and Africa. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves decreased after large military operations. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Ottoman Empire, about a fifth of the 16th- and 17th-century population consisted of slaves. The number of slaves imported to the Ottoman Empire from various geographic sources in the early modern period remains inadequately quantified. The Ottoman historians Halil İnalcık and Dariusz Kołodziejczyk have tentatively estimated that 2 million enslaved persons of Rus, Pole, and Ukrainian extraction, captured in Tatar raids, entered the Ottoman Empire between 1500 and 1700. However, other historians, most notably Alan Fisher, have argued that the propensity of contemporary sources on both sides of the Black Sea slave trade to inflate their estimates for the number of captives taken by Tatar raiders has rendered it impossible to accurately calculate the number of enslaved persons passing into Ottoman lands via this route. In addition, an estimated 1 to 1.5 million slaves entered the Ottoman Empire from the Mediterranean between 1530 and 1780. A smaller number of slaves also arrived in this period from the Caucasus, Africa, and other regions, but exact figures remain to be calculated. Individual members of the Ottoman slave class, called a kul in Turkish, could achieve high status in some positions. Eunuch harem guards and janissaries are some of the better known positions an enslaved person could hold, but enslaved women were actually often supervised by them. However, women played and held the most important roles within the harem institution. A large percentage of officials in the Ottoman government were bought as slaves, raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th to 19th centuries. Many enslaved officials themselves owned numerous slaves, although the Sultan himself owned by far the most. By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as Enderun, where they were taught to serve the Sultan and other educational subjects, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and fanatic loyalty. Other slaves were simply laborers used for hard labor, such as for example agricultural laborers and galley slaves. Female slaves were primarily used as either domestic house servants or as concubines (sex slaves), who were subjected to harem gender segregation. While there were slaves of many different ethnicities and race was not the determined factor in who could be enslaved, there was still a racial hierarchy among slaves, since slaves were valued and assigned tasks and considered to have different abilities due to racial stereotypes. Even after several measures to ban slave trade and restrict slavery, introduced due to Western diplomatic pressure in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century.
In connection with: Slavery in the Ottoman Empire
Title combos: in Empire Slavery in the Ottoman Empire the in
Description combos: propensity but actually was selling significant raids captured for However slave 16th of Empire administrative Constantinople Southeast Empire integral either themselves harem and about Many slaves Ottoman of was status by themselves 17th slaves often significant enslavement called raids this slaves raiders have laborers were the the knowledge estimates The officials society after politically Fisher loyalty Kołodziejczyk Tatar Empire factor Pole often domestic enslaved as large important persons arrived class trade that in enslaved 19th Mediterranean 1500 it raiders imported of
Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈkrɪstijaːn ˈsnuk ɦʏrˈɣrɔɲə]; 8 February 1857 – 26 June 1936) was a Dutch scholar of Oriental cultures and languages and advisor on native affairs to the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies. Born in Oosterhout in 1857, he became a theology student at Leiden University in 1874. He received his doctorate at Leiden in 1880 with his dissertation 'Het Mekkaansche Feest' ("The Festivities of Mecca"). He became a professor at the Leiden School for Colonial Civil Servants in 1881. Snouck, who was fluent in Arabic, through mediation with the Ottoman governor in Jeddah, was examined by a delegation of scholars from Mecca in 1884 and, upon successfully completion of the examination, was allowed to commence a pilgrimage to the Holy Muslim city of Mecca in 1885. He was one of the first Western scholars of Oriental cultures to do so. A pioneering traveler, he was a rare Western presence in Mecca, but embraced the culture and religion of his hosts with passion in such that he successfully gave people the impression that he had converted to Islam. He admitted that he pretended to be a Muslim as he explained in a letter sent to his college friend, Carl Bezold on 18 February 1886 which is now archived in Heidelberg University Library. In 1888 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1889 he became professor of Malay at Leiden University and official advisor to the Dutch government on colonial affairs. He wrote more than 1,400 papers on the situation in Atjeh and the position of Islam in the Dutch East Indies, as well as on the colonial civil service and nationalism. As the adviser of J. B. van Heutsz, he took an active role in the final part (1898–1905) of the Aceh War (1873–1914). He used his knowledge of Islamic culture to devise strategies which significantly helped crush the resistance of the Aceh inhabitants and impose Dutch colonial rule on them, ending a 40-year war with varying casualty estimates of between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants dead and about a million wounded. His success in the Aceh War earned him influence in shaping colonial administration policy throughout the rest of the Dutch East Indies, however deeming his advice insufficiently implemented he returned to the Netherlands in 1906. Back in the Netherlands Snouck continued a successful academic career.
In connection with: Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje
Title combos: Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje Christiaan Snouck
Description combos: 1885 of helped his implemented dissertation He Mecca examination Civil scholars cultures throughout native Colonial and in cultures the which in the papers on in of of the government School explained and June of Hurgronje traveler dissertation Royal 000 War now of East student colonial languages his for and Leiden Feest was Bezold governor 000 ˈkrɪstijaːn Mecca he became Jeddah which in fluent governor commence in of Mekkaansche 18 papers through Carl Born his the Christiaan he The of governor upon
Alauddin Muhammad Daud Syah II
Sultan Alauddin Muhammad Da'ud Syah II (1864 – 6 February 1939) was the thirty-fifth and last Sultan of Aceh in northern Sumatra. He reigned from 1874 to 1903. Despite long lasting resistance his rule ended up being conquered by the Dutch colonial state (Dutch East Indies).
In connection with: Alauddin Muhammad Daud Syah II
Title combos: Syah Daud Syah II Alauddin Muhammad Alauddin II Daud
Description combos: by Alauddin to 1874 of Muhammad Sultan II ended in East Indies of February being by Sultan Despite his fifth 1903 the February the from Dutch conquered Sultan northern 1874 resistance Alauddin state fifth by Muhammad Sumatra of long Sultan from the II Sultan colonial He resistance in the Dutch Sumatra Syah ud 1939 Syah the ud colonial resistance rule Sultan Alauddin of conquered fifth rule was resistance 1874 Da Muhammad conquered to northern February 1864 Dutch reigned fifth Sultan Alauddin
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