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Perú: Atalaya – Satipo

Buying weed Pucallpa

Oliver T. Media reports from the Brazilian Amazon continue to raise much concern over the fate of the Amazon and its peoples. During the last half century, forests have been cut down or degraded from cattle ranching, illegal logging and mining, roads, agribusiness development, and colonization schemes; fish populations have dwindled, and climate change and dam construction are affecting the hydrology of the Amazon River, threatening biodiversity, the livelihoods of indigenous and folk peoples, and the world's climate Ferrante and Fearnside ; Nobre and Nobre ; Walker Although not isolated from the complex forces shaping dynamics in Brazil, the situation in western Amazonia is less well known. To gain a perspective on how the region is changing, we undertook a km trip down the Ucayali River between the cities of Pucallpa and Iquitos in Peru. With our experience as a backdrop, we situate our observations from this long distance transect and discuss ongoing developments reshaping rural life and livelihoods that portend more significant transformations to come to western Amazonia. Pucallpa and Iquitos are less than km apart, as the crow flies, yet the distance by boat is greater than km because of the sinuously meandering course of the Ucayali Abizaid ; Schwenk et al. Following in the footsteps of 19th century explorers like William Herndon, Paul Marcoy and Antonio Raimondi, we sought to gain a regional perspective. We visited settlements previously identified from community histories compiled during our PARLAP survey and pulled-in at sites along the way where something interesting caught our eye. Our stops included important towns, such as Contamana , Orellana and Requena , which were originally established as Franciscan missions; we also stopped at smaller towns and riverine communities, fishing camps and logging posts. At each stop, we visited local markets, agricultural fields, fishing grounds and other areas of interest, and talked to people to inform our observations. By the time we reached Iquitos on June 22, just before the San Juan festivities—the most important regional celebration in the Peruvian Amazon— we had visited some 30 different sites Figure 2 , providing us with unique perspective on how this understudied region is changing. Amazonian rivers have always functioned as natural highways. People have used canoes and rafts since prehistory Lathrap but by the midth century, steamships began to transit up and down the Amazon. By the s, diesel engine boats displaced the steamers. Today, a full gamut of watercraft navigates the Ucayali Salonen et al. Canoes are still used for local travel in some places and the occasional raft can be seen drifting downriver with logs, durable goods, or live fish Figure 4. Large lanchas offer regular passenger and cargo service between Pucallpa and Iquitos, stopping in selected towns and communities along the way, many of which function as intermediary hubs between the cities and other rural communities Figure 5. Smaller boats privately-operated as river buses colectivos are more common within a day's travel from the cities; they stop anywhere en route upon request Figure 6. Peque-peques, personal boats powered by a small air-cooled engine--similar to those on a gas-powered lawnmower-- attached to a long shaft and a small propeller have become commonplace Figure 7. For many, improved river access and transportation are creating new livelihood opportunities, however, access in the region remains spatially and socially uneven Webster et al. People in towns and communities in peri-urban areas have a wider range of options to travel or transport produce, and to do so more frequently and affordably. In contrast, travel and mobility for people in remote communities, especially those on tributaries that penetrate deep into the upland forests, are constrained by the lack of regular boat service, limited navigability during the low water season, large distances and high sinuosity of rivers, and by availability and cost of fuel. In contrast, a trip from a community at a similar distance on the Upper Ucayali only takes 26 hours and the fare is less than half. Even along the main rivers, travel times increase by about 25 percent during the low water season Tenkanen et al. In many riverine communities, people face considerable difficulties getting in and out as the vast floodplain empties when water levels drop, leaving them stranded inland. We witnessed this at Nuevo Encanto de Suni, across from Orellana, where it took us more than an hour by foot to reach the community from the river's edge. The mega-project was clearly on people's minds as we passed through. While taking us to a nearby lake, local authorities from Victoria reported that people in the region, mainly Kukama Kukamiria indigenous people, were deeply concerned that the planned dredging will negatively affect fish, which are critical to their livelihoods and culture, and were thus organizing to resist. Still, the project has not been totally abandoned. In fact, the Ministry of Transportation recently extended the concession to 23 years and approved an increase in the number of reaches to be dredged. Unlike in Brazil, roads in Peru have barely made their way into the Amazon lowlands, but they are beginning to encroach. Peru's National Road Map from shows roads stopping at Yurimaguas and Tarapoto, not quite reaching the lowlands in Loreto and Ucayali, except for the Lima-Pucallpa road. There are some departmental roads, but they are rare. Governments suggest that roads bring development to frontier regions by improving market access, creating jobs, raising incomes, and building of schools, health clinics and other state facilities. Historically, however, roads in tropical forests have also led to deforestation, and often brought crime, dispossession, and marginalization. Arguably, Pucallpas rapid growth and rise as a regional economic center is due largely to its road connection to Lima, but the road has also caused significant forest loss fueled by colonization, cattle ranching, coca, and more recently, oil palm Loker ; Smith et al. Although we travelled by river, roads still emerged as an important theme in our journey. Between Contamana and Dos de Mayo there are two overland passages varaderos that have served as trading routes between the Andes and the Amazon since Incan times Raimondi ; Coomes et al. The strategic importance of the area led the Franciscans to establish a Mission at Sarayacu in the 19th century, where they congregated indigenous peoples Myers Ironically, Sarayacu today is a community where traffickers gather to drink, and as we found out, strangers are not welcome. A couple of dirt roads, presumably built by loggers, are already creeping westwards behind Orellana and Tierra Blanca, seeking to connect the Ucayali with towns on the Huallaga River Finer and Novoa Pinedo-Vasquez pers comm. With roads often come colonists, but we were not expecting that the first people we would see as we arrived at Tierra Blanca would be a group of Mennonites — until recently, Mennonites had not yet reached Peru. They were standing by the river's edge, waiting for a lancha, while everyone else was gathering at a couple of stores to watch Peru's first match in a World Cup in 36 years. The two Mennonite men we talked with explained that they had recently left Bolivia due to problems with Evo Morales' government and land scarcity; another group had migrated from Belize. They originally settled along the Pachitea River, near La Honoria in but were flooded out. When we asked the Mennonite men if they felt soils there were good for agriculture, they confidently replied that they had been raised in the jungle and knew how to work the land. Standing beside a pile of new tin sheets for the roof of their houses, they informed us that they were producing typical Amazonian crops plantains, yuca and maize but were planning to grow sesame and soy. We could not help but to wonder if the presence of the Mennonites in Peru will lead to large-scale deforestation from mechanized commercial agriculture, as in other parts of Latin America Hecht ; Ellis et al. In , this region was identified as a hotspot of deforestation in Amazonia Finer and Mamani Upriver from Orellana, we stopped at a logging camp on the right bank of the Ucayali. There were barges loaded with logs and heavy machinery, in what seemed to be a permanent post Figure Multiple wooden buildings with cement floors served as living quarters, a large dining room and working space. Women washing large pots greeted us as we walked by. According to them, trucks hauled out logs, day and night, and the volume of timber at the site pointed to much activity. Although dusty, the road was in perfect condition, an investment indicative of the value of the resource being extracted. The road was not quite as long as people suggested, but it can easily be spotted on Google Earth, reaching eastwards almost halfway to the Tapiche River. What is most striking from the satellite imagery is how quickly the road has advanced, knowing that all valuable timber species are being stripped out Figure The Sierra del Divisor National Park lies only a few kilometers further east. In various places along the lower Ucayali we encountered a different type of roads that connect inland communities with those at the river's edge. These rural roads are generally only a few kilometers long but bring tremendous benefits to people living in floodplain communities. One good example is the short road from Dos de Mayo — an old community that used to be at the edge of the Ucayali but was left stranded when the river migrated — to San Cristobal, located on the riverbank Figure The road, which is paved and wide enough for two rickshaws motokars , provides a lifeline for Dosdemayinos and facilitates inter-community interactions. Unlike other roads, these roads are built not to extract resources but to connect people. Floods are fundamental to life along the Amazon River. They replenish soils, are key for fisheries and facilitate transportation. For locals, floods are a given, and in general they are well adapted to them. Yet, floods can create significant challenges for people, especially if flood events are long, high, or come early Langill and Abizaid or when sudden flood reversals repiquetes occur during the recession period Coomes et al. Periodically, severe floods destroy crops, kill livestock, cause disease, food and income shortages, and disrupt social life Denevan ; Harris ; Coomes ; Sherman et al. Climate change models predict higher and longer floods in western Amazonia Sorribas et al. How will they fare? A significant repiquete occurred just days before our trip a 2. We stopped at a large mudflat planted with rice at Las Brisas, a left-bank community about 1. The rice in the higher areas was amongst the lushest we have ever seen, but it was evident that the lower sections, closer to the river, had been severely damaged Figure A local farmer contemplating his loss said he was unsure if he would replant rice, or grow cowpeas instead, but he knew he had to plant again soon if he was to harvest before the next flood. Time will tell if mudflat rice will continue to be viable in the future. Despite intensified flooding, it is not always practical for people to resettle on higher ground, because of difficulties in access. Instead, people in many communities are raising their houses on higher stilts to ensure they stay above the flood. Interestingly, in some places, people reported that nearby upland terra firme areas, which should not flood according to local floklore, are inundating. Although it remains unclear whether this is a recent phenomenon, what stemmed from conversations with local residents was that not all flooding is derived from turbid waters spilling over the riverbanks and that in some communities flooding is caused by the rise of the water table above ground surface in lower areas of the terra firme. This type of local flooding along whitewater rivers has yet to be studied but is likely to have important implications for soil fertility, human health, and ultimately it may challenge the upland-floodplain distinction that still dominates local folklore and academic discourse. In response to severe floods in the last decade, district governments along the lower Ucayali have put hefty amounts of money to build flood protection walls around communities that may also serve as causeways during the high water Figure These walls have yet to be put to the test with a high flood, but their effectiveness at protecting communities from the water rising is questionable and thus may be giving people a false sense of security. It is possible that this initiative was geared at creating jobs, especially in leading up to an election year, rather than to protect people from floods. A striking trend we observed on this trip is the recent and widespread adoption of small motors and cell phones, which are changing life in the region. Small motors have been used as boat engines and in chainsaws at least since the s, but only the wealthiest people could afford them, using them to run a colectivo, to fish, or for logging Bergman ; Hiraoka The motors we found on our trip are as low-tech as those from the s, but as a result of the China-Peru Free Trade Agreement, which removed tariffs on imports of small motors and motorized equipment, Peru has been flooded with very affordable small motors. According to residents from a community close to Pucallpa, it is possible to earn enough money to buy a peque-peque from one or two good nights of fishing, or from profits from a good harvest. Another significant advantage of these motors is that they can be repaired with simple tools and limited mechanical knowledge. Beyond boats and chainsaws, small motors are widely used today to power motokars, cargo rickshaws furgones , and rudimentary wagons locally known as Kubotas, portable sawmills, water pumps, weed-eaters, threshers, generators, among other things that are easing life for people Figure Even in small communities everyone seemed to have a peque-peque, something that was rare only 15 years ago; shop owners carry stock of gasoline and replacement parts, and some, as in San Cristobal, sold the motors locally. The implications of these changes for livelihoods and resource conservation are profound. People commented that a peque-peque allows them to tend fields and fish at more distant sites. Personal boats have made it much easier to travel to visit relatives and friends, to attend sports tournaments in other communities Walker ; Abizaid et al. Small motors are making some agricultural tasks faster and less burdensome and could change agricultural labor relations. In several communities we saw men returning from the fields, weed-eaters on their shoulder instead of a machete. In conversation, it became clear that wage labor arrangements were shifting from daily wages to task-based work due to the increased labor efficiency of weed-eaters Figure Besides easing labor bottlenecks, this shift is translating into higher earnings for some laborers. Higher wages could create disincentives to participate in cooperative labor parties mingas and community public works, which are important to social life in rural Amazonia Hames ; Chibnik and de Jong ; Abizaid et al. We were unable to confirm the situation about mingas, but local residents did tell us that people are more likely to participate in public works such as the clearing of streets or weeding around the school, because working with weeders is faster and much less onerous than working with machetes. More broadly, small motors are creating new economic opportunities for rural peoples, allowing them to add value locally, provide new services, and run different types of businesses. We saw, for instance, a portable sawmill in Nuevo Canchahuaya and a group of men using a chainsaw to build a boat in Alto Perillo Figure We consistently encountered motokars, furgones and Kubotas transporting people or cargo in and around communities. In Victoria there were two sewing shops where women were making school uniforms and soccer jerseys of the Peruvian National team as part of the World Cup craze, using textiles brought in from Lima. Clearly, this diversification has the potential to exacerbate inequalities and social differentiation. However, the affordability of the smaller motors, especially peque-peques, also lowers entry barriers for participation in some activities. For instance, with a small peque-peque anyone can run a boat taxi llevo-llevo Langill , and in combination with an old fridge and ice, fishermen can preserve their fish longer and take their catch directly to market for sale Figure 20 Poissant Like motors, cell phones have gained much popularity in the Peruvian Amazon, despite lagging coverage relative to other regions of Peru. Cell phones have provided valuable communication during the COVID pandemic; with rural fixed phones inactive since , cell phones have been the primary source of communication during the current pandemic Takasaki et al. Claro, a subsidiary of Carlos Slim's TelMex and the second main carrier in Peru, tends to focus on urban coverage. It was interesting to find that cell phone access was ubiquitous, and that young people are just as obsessed with cell phones as those in Lima or North America. Locals use phones to talk with relatives and friends and some are quite active in social media, but most importantly for our work, we found that people of the Ucayali are also using cell phones to get market and price information, to connect with buyers in market towns and to coordinate transportation services. For example, at a community near the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve PSNR , a local shop owner was not shy to ask if we were interested in buying turtle eggs, a sale that would be illegal. He said he could get them for us once the turtles laid their eggs and could give a buzz over a cell phone to coordinate the shipment and payment. Similarly, a local informal lender habilitador for fish in the same community told us that thanks to her cell phone, she has been able to bypass intermediaries in the city and is now selling fish directly through a relative based in Pucallpa. But most striking for us was to find an emergent money transfer scheme linked to cell phones. At least five companies were offering such services, one of them covering more than 40 communities and towns in Loreto alone. Like Western Union, this type of service is likely important for transferring remittances but given its less formal nature there is concern that it could be used for money laundering and to finance illegal activities. Based on our conversations with locals, we think habilitadores in the city may use these cellphone-based money transfers to finance extractive activities by rural households at scales unseen before. Some 50 kilometers downstream from where the Puinahua canal starts, a series of fishing camps along the shores of the Ucayali Figure 24 caught our attention so we decided to stop at one to talk to the fishing party. They were from Nueva York— not the Big Apple, but a small community along the Tapiche River—and were on an expedition to chase schools of migrating fish mijanos on the Ucayali as water levels drop. We did not have an opportunity to ask them about how they procured their supplies, but it is not difficult to envision how money transfer services through cell phones could be mobilized to finance ventures like this or even larger ones. He coordinates in advance with a stable pool of clients who transfer him the money once the fish have been sold. Cell phones are reducing the cost of transactions and are changing lives along the river in significant ways. Peru holds the second largest area of the Amazon basin, yet it is far less well known than the Brazilian Amazon. Our km boat journey down the Ucayali opened our eyes to important changes underway in the Peruvian Amazon. Changes in river transport mobility, new roads, hydrological changes due to climate change, and the arrival of small motors and cell phones are rapidly changing the environment and lives and lifeways of the people who live along one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon River. Our observations and conversations with people as we travelled down the Ucayali on the Carlitos suggest that the Ucayali River is shaping up as one of the most dynamic frontiers in Amazonia, especially along the west bank of the Ucayali, as a key region for Andes-Amazon integration. Although the changes we report on in this article are important individually, their combined synergistic effects will be greater. Although the Peruvian Amazon remains still largely undeveloped, our findings from this boat trip provide a glimpse into greater changes to come to the region and lend support to concerns that change in western Amazonia may follow in the footsteps of Brazil. How will the environment and the people of the Ucayali and the Peruvian Amazon fare in the coming years remains to be discovered. We are grateful to Carlos Rengifo our guide and Orison Tapayuri boat pilot without whom the trip would have not been possible. We are most thankful to all the people of the Ucayali we encountered along the journey for their warmth and generosity; they made the trip so much more interesting and enjoyable. The map was prepared by Julia Daley and Helen Turvene. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Meeting of the Conference of Latin American Geography in Antigua, Guatemala. We also thank Michael Steinberg and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments which helped us to improve this article. We dedicate this article to the riverine populations of Ucayali and Loreto in Peru, with whom we have had the privilege to work with over the years. Lifeways and currents of change in the Peruvian Amazon: A km boat journey down the Ucayali River. Abizaid, C. The Geographical Review 95 1 : Coomes, Y. Takasaki and S. The Professional Geographer 67 3 : Takasaki, and J. Geographical Review 1 : 92— Anabaptist World. Jenkins, S. Heilpern et al. Science Advances ; 4: eaao Andina, Agencia Peruana de Noticias. Bergman, R. Amazon Economics. The Simplicity of Shipibo Indian Wealth. Dellplain Latin American Studies, 6. Ethnology — Coomes, O. Professional Geographer — Lapointe, M. Templeton, and G. Journal of Hydrology — Denevan, W. Annals of the Association of American Geographers — June 11, Romero Montero, I. Land Use Policy El Comercio, August 11, M Fearnside. The Amazon's Road to Deforestation. Science : Finer M and S. Detection of New Logging? Roads in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: Image 3. Mamani, and D. MAAP: MAAP Synthesis 4. Garden Labor Exchange among the Ye'kwana. Ethology and Sociobiology 8 4 : — Harris, M. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4: 65— Hecht, S. Soybeans, Development and Conservation on the Amazon Frontier. Development and Change 36 2 : — Hiraoka, M. Tsukuba Studies in Human Geography. Junk, W. Soares, and P. Diario Judicial de Loreto. Se Cansaron de Esperar Proyecto. Gender, Place Culture. Langill, J. What is a Bad Flood? Ambio — Lathrap, D. World Archaeology 5 2 Latrubesse, E. Arima, T. Dunne et al. Damming the Rivers of the Amazon Basin. Nature Baumann, et al. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 1 : Neumann, A. O'Driscoll and K. List, G. Coomes Natural Hazards — Loker, W. Human Organization 52 1 : Plan Vial Departamental Participativo de Loreto Gobierno Regional de Loreto. Myers, T. Neyra, R. Nobre, C. Boletim Regional, Urbano e Ambiental Poissant, D. Thesis, McGill University. Porro, R. Forest Policy and Economics Proyecto de Ley CR. April 18, Raimondi, A. Salisbury, D. Fagan GeoJournal Salonen, M. Toivonen, J. Cohalan and O. Critical distances: Comparing measures of spatial accessibility in the riverine landscapes of Peruvian Amazonia. Applied Geography Schwenk, J. Khandelwal, M. Fratkin, V. Kumar, and E. Earth and Space Science 4 2 Sherman, M. Ford, A. Llanos-Cuentas and M. Food Security 8: — Smith, J. Reategui, et al. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment Takasaki, T. Coomes and C. Policy Brief. Lattu, and T. Van der Ende, M. Deutsche Welle Documentary. Walker, H. American Ethnologist 40 2 : Walker, R. Simmons, E. Arima et al. One Earth 1 2 : Webster, K. Arroyo-Mora, O. Takasaki, and C.

Buying weed Pucallpa