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Buying marijuana Messina

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Buying marijuana Messina

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Nicole R. Schultz played supporting role in visualization and equal role in conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, writing of original draft and writing of review and editing. Elizabeth R. Aston played lead role in visualization and supporting role in conceptualization, formal analysis, writing of original draft and writing of review and editing. Jane Metrik played supporting role in writing of original draft and writing of review and editing. Jason J. Ramirez played lead role in conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project administration, resources, supervision and validation, supporting role in visualization and equal role in software, writing of original draft and writing of review and editing. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nicole R. Cannabis demand i. Cannabis demand has yet to be studied in adolescents, which can inform prevention and intervention efforts to reduce cannabis-related risks. The present study sought to validate the MPT with a sample of late adolescent lifetime cannabis users. Convergent and divergent validity was examined, while principal component analysis was conducted to determine the factor structure and assess predictive validity. Three indices, O max i. A two-factor solution reflecting amplitude intensity, alpha, O max and persistence breakpoint, P max was observed. Both factors were associated with cannabis use and consequences in baseline regression models. At follow-up, persistence was associated with consequences; amplitude was not associated with either outcome. These findings provide initial evidence that the MPT is a valid measure for assessing cannabis demand among adolescents and can be used to understand mechanisms of adolescent cannabis use. Keywords: reinforcing value RV , behavioral economics, purchase task, cannabis, adolescents. Within this framework, substance demand is a key construct that provides information about the relative reinforcing value RV of a substance by examining the relation between the exchange of one commodity for another e. Persistent elevated RV partially makes up what has been conceptualized as reinforcer pathology, which in turn has been theoretically posited to underlie substance misuse and use disorders e. Five distinct demand indices can be obtained from purchase task performance definitions of indices appear in parentheses : intensity i. Moreover, demand curves can be derived from purchase data reflecting the relation between the proportional changes in purchasing behavior as a function of the proportional changes in substance price Bickel et al. In addition to providing quantitative measures of motivation, there are several benefits to utilizing purchase tasks. First, they utilize self-report, which makes them cost-effective and easy to administer in different contexts e. Second, they are hypothetical, which makes it possible to study populations in which drug administration would not be ethical e. In a seminal study on cannabis demand, similar to findings from research on other substances, demand for cannabis was sensitive to price—as prices increased, consumption decreased Collins et al. Intensity, alpha, O max , and P max were predictive of real-time cannabis use. Similarly, Aston et al. In laboratory studies, exposure to cannabis in the form of cues or drug administration affected subsequent demand Hindocha et al. For example, Metrik et al. Similar to other substance use demand studies, demand indices captured by the MPT are typically correlated with one another Aston et al. While these indices are conceptually related, they represent unique characteristics of demand that are differentially related to the etiology of substance use disorders. Factor analytic studies of alcohol MacKillop et al. Consistent with findings from alcohol and tobacco studies, indices derived from the MPT load onto two factors generally reflecting amplitude and persistence. While one study found that intensity alone loaded on to the amplitude latent factor Aston et al. Despite differences in factor structure loadings, persistence and amplitude were uniquely related to different cannabis-related outcomes among adults Aston et al. Thus, utilizing a latent factor structure provides a more parsimonious framework by which to understand the relations between demand and substance use outcomes. Further, by reducing the number of demand variables from five individual indices to two latent factors reduces risks of multi-collinearity and type I errors in statistical tests Amlung et al. Findings from previous studies provide evidence for the validity of the MPT among adult cannabis users. However, a notable gap in the behavioral economic literature is the assessment of cannabis demand during adolescence, a critical period of development marked by elevated risk associated with cannabis use. Further, daily cannabis use has steadily increased, comparable to peak rates observed during the s. Recreational cannabis use often first occurs prior to the age of 18, with earlier use associated with poorer cognitive Jacobus et al. Relative to adults, adolescents are at greater risk for cannabis use disorder CUD , with greater risk associated with earlier onset of use Richter et al. Given the high prevalence of cannabis use and the associated negative consequences, it is important to understand and characterize the RV of cannabis among adolescents, which can in turn inform individual and systemic prevention and intervention efforts. There are important developmental considerations suggesting that demand for cannabis may be uniquely expressed in youth and that psychometric evaluation of the MPT among this age group is needed. First, purchase tasks rely on participants being able to consider a hypothetical scenario that involves purchasing and consuming a substance in various quantities. Second, adolescents are not typically financially independent and may have limited or irregular financial support to purchase cannabis, resulting in increased sensitivity to costs. While there is a dearth of evidence pertaining to cannabis spending, previous findings suggest that adolescents who engage in cigarette smoking Friend et al. In sum, cannabis use and purchase behavior is complex among adolescents as this is a heterogeneous population with broad ranges in ease of access, finances, and behavior. Given these complexities, it is important to utilize psychometrically valid measures to assess the RV of cannabis among adolescents. Exploring whether individual differences in price sensitivity are meaningfully related to cannabis use outcomes among adolescents is important for policy and prevention given the expanding legal market and availability of cannabis products. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the validity of the MPT with a sample of adolescents reporting recent cannabis use and current demand i. Consistent with previous MPT research, we predicted that self-reported cannabis consumption would decrease as the cost of cannabis increased. We also predicted that the MPT would show convergent, divergent, and predictive validity. To establish convergent validity, we expected that MPT indices would be significantly correlated with cross-sectional cannabis use outcomes, including use, consequences, craving, and recent expenditures on cannabis. Finally, we sought to examine the latent factor structure of the MPT. Consistent with previous studies examining the MPT among adult samples, we expected that MPT indices would load onto two factors, one reflecting demand amplitude and another reflecting demand persistence. To establish predictive validity, we expected that these factors would be uniquely associated with cannabis use and consequences at baseline and 6-month follow-up. We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions, all manipulations not applicable , and all measures in the study. To be eligible for the study, participants needed to be between the ages of 15—18 and live in the greater metropolitan area of a Northwestern state with legalized recreational cannabis use. Data collection for the study occurred between and Recruitment was further stratified by birth sex to include roughly equal numbers of males and females within strata of cannabis use groups. Recruitment for the parent study took place predominantly via social media e. Those who completed screening and were eligible for the study were contacted by phone to verify their identity and complete consent procedures. Each survey took between 30 and 45 min to complete, and participants were compensated in the form of Amazon. Data from this study are from the baseline assessment and 6-month assessment in the parent study. The present study was not preregistered. All participants provided informed consent online before beginning the study. Three attention check questions e. All participants correctly answered at least two of the three questions at baseline The MPT was administered to assess behavioral economic demand for cannabis Aston et al. Participants were provided with the following instructions to complete the MPT, which included a reference image to indicate scale for a half gram and full gram of cannabis: On the following page you will see a number of questions that ask how much marijuana you would use at different levels of price. Please respond to these questions as if you were actually in this situation. Assume that: You can only get marijuana from this source. You have the typical amount of money available to you to purchase marijuana. You did NOT use marijuana or use any other drugs right before making these decisions. You will NOT have an opportunity to use marijuana elsewhere after making these decisions. You would use all the marijuana that you purchase. The marijuana you will purchase will be similar to the quality and strength of what you typically use. You can only buy a maximum of 99 grams. Whether you are with people or alone, assume this amount of marijuana is only for your personal use. Cannabis use frequency was measured with a single item assessing the number of self-reported cannabis use days in the past 3 months. In addition, participants estimated number of typical hours high on each day of the week in the past 3 months with the Marijuana Daily Questionnaire Lee et al. Typical hours high were summed across days to calculate hours high in a typical week in the past 3 months. Cannabis consequences were assessed with the marijuana consequences checklist Lee et al. Cannabis craving was assessed with the item short-form version of the Marijuana Craving Questionnaire Heishman et al. Thus, consistent with previous literature Bonn-Miller et al. Given that our current aim was to validate the MPT among adolescents for which cannabis has RV, we first excluded 28 participants from the greater study who reported no use of cannabis in their lifetime. We sought to calculate alpha among the sample which requires variable hypothetical consumption i. We therefore excluded an additional 17 participants based on this criterion, which is consistent with prior studies utilizing similar purchase tasks e. Further, only four of these 17 participants reported any consumption 0. Demand data cleaning with the remaining participants was completed consistent with standard practice, which consists of using three criteria to identify nonsystematic data: trend i. Based on these criteria, seven additional participants were removed for exhibiting bounce responding or reversals from zero, and one participant was removed due to missing data, leaving a final analytic sample of participants. Prior to calculation of demand indices, raw MPT data were examined for outliers using standard scores i. A small number of outliers were detected 2. Observed values for intensity, O max , P max , and breakpoint were estimated by directly examining MPT performance. Alpha i. The k value used in analyses was 2. An R 2 value was generated to reflect percentage of variance accounted for by the demand equation i. Upon generation of demand indices, data were examined for distribution normality. O max , P max , and alpha were significantly positively skewed and transformed using a logarithmic transformation which considerably decreased skewness. Skewness for intensity and breakpoint were negligible and nontransformed indices were used in analyses. Convergent validity was examined with correlational analyses between demand indices and cannabis outcomes i. The factor structure of cannabis demand was examined with principal component analysis followed by Oblimin rotation. The entered variables included all five demand indices but with an inverse value for alpha i. A factor loading of 0. Factor scores were derived by regression methods and reflect standardized regression coefficients. Resulting factors were then included in negative binomial regression models that controlled for age and sex to examine unique associations between factors and measures of cannabis use frequency and consequences at baseline and 6-month follow-up. Models predicting 6-month outcomes also included baseline levels of their respective outcomes i. For additional data and study materials, please contact the last author. Participants in the analytic sample reported using cannabis on an average of Regarding usual mode of cannabis administration in the past 30 days, With regard to observed indices of cannabis demand, the mean number of grams consumed at free cost intensity was Figure 1 shows the log-transformed mean consumption in grams left and log-transformed mean expenditure in dollars right at each price point. As expected, as the cost of cannabis increased, hypothetical purchasing decreased. All descriptive statistics are presented for nontransformed demand indices. The x -axis represents log-transformed price per gram in both plots, and the y -axis represents log-transformed mean consumption in grams left and mean expenditure in dollars right. Error bars represent standard error of the means SEMs. Table 2 shows correlations between demand indices and cannabis-related outcomes. P max was not associated with any cannabis outcome variables. Use days represents the number of cannabis use days in the past three months; Use hours represents the number of hours high in a typical week in the past 3 months; Conseq. First, there were no group differences between low- and high-risk users with regard to age and birth sex. Compared to low-risk users, high-risk users engaged in more frequent cannabis use, endorsed more consequences, endorsed greater craving, and spent more money on cannabis in the past 30 days. Further, high-risk users also scored significantly higher on O max and breakpoint, and significantly lower on alpha. No significant differences were observed for P max or intensity. Means and SEMs of nontransformed demand indices shown here for interpretability; t tests performed on transformed variables for O max , P max , and alpha. The x -axis represents log-transformed price per gram, and the y -axis represents log-transformed mean consumption in grams. Eigenvalues in descending order were 2. The two-factor solution accounted for Table 4 presents the factor loadings of all five MPT demand indices on each of the rotated factors. To assess predictive validity, amplitude and persistence were both included in negative binomial regression models predicting baseline and 6-month a cannabis use frequency and b cannabis-related consequences while controlling for age and sex, as well as baseline use or consequences for those respective outcomes in 6-month analyses See Table 5. Cannabis use represents the number of cannabis use days in the past 3 months. Cannabis consequences represent sum scores on the marijuana consequences checklist. Persistence consisted of P max and breakpoint. Models predicting Month 6 outcomes controlled for baseline levels of the respective outcome for each model. The present study provides initial evidence of the validity of the MPT among a sample of late adolescent cannabis users from a state with legalized recreational use. Consistent with purchase task data from adult samples across different substances Aston et al. Convergent validity was established via correlations in the expected directions among demand indices and cannabis-related outcomes, with the exception of intensity significantly associated with craving and spending only and P max no significant associations observed. Moreover, divergent validity was established as demand indices, with the exception of intensity and P max , differentiated low- and high-risk users as measured by the CUDIT-R. Finally, principal component analysis suggested that demand indices loaded onto two unique factors, each independently associated with cannabis use and consequences at baseline. These findings at face value suggest that relative to adults, adolescents would use more cannabis at free cost, but are more sensitive to changes in price i. Previous research has suggested that intensity is a particularly important metric among young adults Zvorsky et al. Given that studies have shown that the most common pathway for high school seniors to obtain cannabis is free from friends Wagner et al. This has important implications for understanding the etiology of problematic cannabis use among this age group and may help explain why adolescents are at increased risk for developing CUD compared to adults Richter et al. In addition to the etiological implications, relatively low demand on metrics involving expenditures have prevention implications. Specifically, these findings may reflect the impact of greater constraints on discretionary spending availability i. Despite high mean intensity observed in the current sample, intensity was not associated with cannabis use or cannabis-related consequences, nor did it differentiate low- and high-risk users, which contrasts previous findings among comparatively older populations Aston et al. It is possible that adolescents have less experience purchasing cannabis relative to adult counterparts and therefore may have less knowledge regarding units of cannabis consumption, resulting in inflated intensity scores. If so, this may attenuate the predictive validity of intensity among adolescents more so than indices that reflect price sensitivity. That is to say, adolescents may have a better understanding of their financial limitations and thresholds on purchasing cannabis e. While caution is warranted in making direct comparisons between adolescents and adults based on the present study, as well as between studies using different demand equations, these findings highlight the need for future research to explore mechanisms that may explain differences in intensity, as well as the remaining demand indices, among adolescent and adult cannabis users. Previous studies examining the latent factor structure of alcohol MacKillop et al. This contrasts findings from the present study, which found that indices of intensity, O max , and alpha loaded onto a single factor, while only P max and breakpoint loaded onto a second factor. While this factor structure is atypical, it has been replicated twice in a recent study examining cannabis demand among emerging adults age ranges As noted by Minhas et al. Given that this study included a range of infrequent to frequent users, it will be worth further examining the factor structure among studies with greater proportions of frequent adolescent users presumably with more purchasing experience. At baseline, amplitude and persistence were only weakly correlated with each other, and yet each was independently associated with cannabis use and consequences in cross-sectional regression models that included both factors. At 6-month follow-ups, persistence was associated with consequences after controlling for baseline levels of consequences akin to predicting changes in consequences over time , whereas amplitude was not associated with prospective use or consequences. These findings suggest that each factor may represent independent facets of cannabis demand that are each uniquely acting as markers of recent use and consequences. The prospective analyses further suggest that persistence in purchasing behavior reflected by breakpoint and P max may have additional utility in predicting worsening consequences attributable to cannabis use across this developmental period. There are several limitations to note with suggestions for future research. First, we used a conservative approach in excluding adolescents who indicated that they would only consume cannabis for free on the MPT. Although it is possible that this exclusionary criterion could have resulted in exclusion of more opportunistic regular users i. Only four excluded participants reported hypothetical consumption at free cost and only one participant reported using cannabis on a monthly basis or more none at a weekly basis. Further, the MPT is best suited to assess the reinforcing value of cannabis among individuals with previous purchasing experience, and it is unclear if cannabis is reinforcing to those with very limited use experiences and who are unwilling to spend resources on the substance itself. Future studies should explore the reinforcing value of cannabis among adolescents without spending history using alternative measures Acuff et al. Second, this study was conducted in a state with legalized cannabis use for individuals ages 21 and over. Third, while adults find grams preferable to hits on the MPT Aston et al. Replication using adaptive purchase tasks that allow individuals to select their preferred product and route of administration is warranted Ferguson et al. Future studies should replicate these findings against more stringent measures of CUD i. Finally, we did not assess discretionary spending or other proxies of income among our sample, and future studies should do so in order to delineate the influence of this variable on cannabis demand. Despite the aforementioned limitations, the present study significantly contributes to the demand literature by becoming the first to examine the validity of MPT among a sample of adolescent cannabis users from a state with legalized recreational use. These findings have significant clinical implications, particularly in the context of cannabis legalization across the majority of U. Of particular importance, adolescents in the present study showed sensitivity to price, with hypothetical purchasing decreasing as a function of increasing cost. Further, in comparison to studies with adult cannabis users, adolescents reported greater demand at free cost intensity , but more sensitivity to price, and metrics demonstrating price sensitivity were more reliably associated with cannabis use outcomes relative to intensity. Therefore, the financial costs associated with cannabis use may be especially important within this population. Prevention efforts may wish to focus attention on limiting means of cannabis access at little or no financial costs. Parental monitoring can play a large role both in ensuring limited access to potentially free cannabis e. Further, prior studies have demonstrated that cannabis users view legal cannabis as a superior commodity compared to illegal cannabis on versions of the MPT and are willing to pay more for legal product Amlung et al. Although cannabis remains illegal for recreational use among adolescents across the country, the shifting legal climate may be contributing to decreased perceptions of cannabis risks among adolescents Johnston et al. Clear prevention messages that communicate the risks, including the legal risks, to adolescents are needed at the family, community, and state levels. This study provides initial evidence that the marijuana purchase task is a valid measure to assess the reinforcing value of cannabis among adolescents. In addition to differentiating low- and high-risk users cross-sectionally, demand indices loaded on two latent factors, amplitude and persistence. Both factors were associated with cannabis use and consequences at baseline; persistence was associated with consequences at 6 months. These findings suggest that adolescents may be particularly sensitive to cannabis cost. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The authors declare no competing interests. This study was not preregistered. A subset of the findings appearing in the manuscript were disseminated at the annual meeting of the Research Society on Marijuana in July, As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. Published in final edited form as: Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. Find articles by Nicole R Schultz. Find articles by Elizabeth R Aston. Find articles by Jane Metrik. Find articles by Jason J Ramirez. Issue date Feb. PMC Copyright notice. The publisher's version of this article is available at Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. Open in a new tab. Correlations Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Intensity — 2. O max 0. Breakpoint 0. Use days 0. Use hours 0. Craving 0. Spending 0. Metric Factor 1 Factor 2 Intensity 0. Similar articles. Add to Collections. 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Buying marijuana Messina