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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Key findings and threat assessment. Global context. Trafficking and supply. Retail markets. Criminal networks. Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. The affordability of drugs is a measure that incorporates drug purity or potency and accounts for differing national economic conditions, as quantified in the price level indices see Groshkova et al. Using affordability as a measure allows a more sophisticated comparison of retail drug markets across countries and over time. Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Meanwhile the retail price of resin products has, on average, remained stable during the same year period. Several developments already raised in this report have likely contributed to the increase in resin potency. These include the introduction of new cannabis strains and new cultivation and resin extraction techniques in Morocco see Section Cannabis resin production outside the EU. In addition, it is also possible that the amount of high-potency cannabis resin produced in Europe is increasing. These recent trends seem to confirm a finding reported in the previous edition of this report EMCDDA and Europol, , namely that cannabis resin may have become a more attractive product to some consumers in the EU, especially for those who seek high-potency cannabis products. Data on the prevalence of cannabis use, expressed in estimated numbers of users during the last year, may be viewed as an indicator of the location and approximate size of retail markets. Historically, cannabis has been the most used illicit drug in Europe, with currently around 84 million adults in the European Union aged , or As is the case with other drugs, the majority of cannabis users in Europe are males, who on average are twice as likely to report use as females. Overall, the prevalence of cannabis use in Europe appears to have remained stable over the past decade, although prevalence of use has increased in some of the countries that already had the highest rates of use, such as Croatia, Czechia, the Netherlands and Spain. Recent trends based on data from 15 countries that have conducted surveys on last-year cannabis use since indicate that levels of use have increased in four countries, remained stable in six countries and decreased in five countries. However, it appears to have affected patterns of use, with more frequent herbal cannabis users consuming more and infrequent users consuming less, on average. This trend was less marked for cannabis resin see Section How cannabis products are retailed in Europe. The most recent data available on last-year use indicate that the largest retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin continue to be located in western and southern Europe. Young adults make up the majority of last-year cannabis users in Europe, representing an estimated Germany and Spain follow, with 3. In terms of estimated total numbers of cannabis users, Czechia and Poland appear to be the largest retail markets in the Eastern part of the EU, with an estimated 0. It is estimated that around 3. Cannabis prevalence data do not discriminate between the different products used. These proportions are indicative as the EWSD is not representative of the entire European population. In wastewater analysis, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far, although it is excreted in low percentages Causanilles et al. There are several challenges and uncertainties in the wastewater analysis of THC-COOH, related to factors such as the analytical measurements and poorly understood excretion rates Bijlsma et al. In addition, this type of analysis is not able to discriminate between the different cannabis products consumed. Overall, research to develop alternative biomarkers is needed and caution is required when interpreting trends based on THC-COOH loads in wastewater. A stable or decreasing trend in the THC-COOH loads was observed for almost all of the 23 cities with available data for the period. In countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found in the THC-COOH loads when comparing large and small cities. Wastewater analysis can also detect fluctuations in patterns of illicit drug use across the week. In summary, the wastewater data indicate that, unlike the use of other drugs, such as cocaine EMCDDA, a , the European cannabis market is relatively stable overall since THC-COOH is present in both large and small urban areas and evidence of use is distributed evenly over the week. A further data source pointing to overall stability in the cannabis market is that of treatment demand for cannabis use problems. Based on the data available from 25 countries, the numbers entering specialised drug treatment for cannabis problems in Europe remained stable between and On average, clients entered treatment for cannabis problems every year during those four years. Similarly, an average of 58 people a year entered treatment for the first time in their lives during that period, with a 1. However, the number of treatment entrants declined noticeably in This is indicative of how the COVID pandemic affected treatment provision and demand as well as the monitoring of these services across Europe. While the numbers entering treatment increased slightly in , they still remained below the levels. The lack of rebound in treatment entries for cannabis problems in to pre-pandemic levels may be related to several factors. As a consequence, help-seeking and the ability to access services remained subdued. In addition, services continued to operate within strict infection prevention conditions, which reduced treatment capacity and intake. The data available may also mask a greater use of tele-medicine during this period, which was not captured by the treatment demand indicator. Finally, there may have also been a natural reduction in treatment demand due to reduced use of cannabis during the pandemic among some groups. Note: Trends in first-time entrants are based on data from 25 countries. Only countries with data for at least five of the six years are included in the trends analysis. Missing values are interpolated from adjacent years. Because of disruptions to services due to COVID, data for and should be interpreted with caution. Missing data were imputed from values for the previous year for Spain and France and Germany Since the total number of herbal cannabis seizures in Europe has exceeded those involving resin, and this continued to be the case in This appears to confirm that herbal cannabis is more widely consumed than cannabis resin in Europe. The majority of seizures of the two main cannabis products reported in Europe, namely herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, are probably confiscated on retail markets since they involve amounts of grams or less. In a context of consistently high drug availability at the retail level, a finite, but constant, level of law enforcement resources deployed to police illicit cannabis markets has likely influenced the relative stability in numbers of seizures. It is therefore probable that if more, or less, law enforcement resources were available to police these retail markets, seizure trends would vary commensurately. Both of these figures are underestimates since no data are available for from countries that usually report large numbers of seizures, such as France and Germany. By comparison, the total number of cocaine seizures, the second largest drug market in Europe, was estimated at 71 in Europe that same year. These countries thus have a substantial impact on overall seizure trends in Europe. Some of the overall reduction in cannabis seizures may be due to fewer police resources being focused on enforcing drug laws at the retail level in , as officers were mobilised to enforce COVID restrictions. In addition, prolonged lockdown periods likely drove many cannabis users and dealers out of public spaces. Although the use of herbal cannabis is fairly long-standing in these countries, the comparatively low prevalence of use in most countries and their generally smaller population sizes result in retail markets that are much smaller than those in the relatively more affluent and populated western and northern parts of Europe see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Trends in numbers of seizures of cannabis resin and herb in these 11 central and eastern European countries present a somewhat different picture from the rest of Europe, characterised by less stability and an overall increase for both products, at least until A similar pattern can be observed in Europe as a whole. However, in the case of cannabis resin seizures, the pattern in the east of the EU differs markedly from the overall European picture, which shows numbers of resin seizures having risen back to nearly pre-pandemic levels in Overall, these trends seem to indicate that cannabis retail markets in the eastern part of the EU are growing, unlike those in most of the rest of Europe. However, the impact of COVID in eastern Europe, particularly on resin, seems to be stronger and longer lasting than in the rest of the continent see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Cannabis oil has long been a marginal product on European consumer markets, with the total number of European seizures rarely reaching more than per year since reporting began in These five countries may therefore be viewed as emerging retail markets for cannabis oil in Europe, although several other countries with high prevalence of cannabis use do not report seizures of oil. These findings, together with an increase in the quantity of oil seized see Section Cannabis trafficking and supply: record quantities seized in , could indicate that cannabis oil is slowly gaining popularity among some European consumers. Some of the comparatively newer cannabis consumer products, such as butane hash oil BHO , rosin or cannabis wax, that have become available in Europe in recent years see Figure Cannabis: taxonomy of products traditional and modern are probably manufactured by consumers themselves from their own cannabis crops or from herbal or resin material purchased from dealers. However, some of these products may also be the result of commercial manufacturing in Europe and elsewhere. For instance, there have been seizures of such products at European postal hubs and airports, in parcels and on flights from Canada and the United States. Some of these products have also been seized in the United States on their way to Europe. These seizures usually involve small amounts, weighing a few hundred grams or less, although larger quantities are seized occasionally. For instance, in , a total of almost 58 kilograms of cannabis wax from the United States was seized in Germany. In , some 4. Other products such as edibles and e-cigarette liquids appear to have emerged in Europe more recently. They tend to be manufactured more professionally, often in third countries. The development of novel cannabis consumer products has been particularly dynamic and fast-paced in countries where cannabis has been regulated for recreational use, especially Canada and some parts of the United States. A broad range of products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids, such as HHC, are available from online shops in some EU countries. Cannabis edibles are foods that are infused with cannabinoids Barrus et al. They can mimic popular brands of foods, particularly sweets and other snack products see Photo Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in and Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Commercial edibles appear to have become increasingly popular in some North American jurisdictions following cannabis policy changes. While they are usually subject to strict regulations aimed at reducing the potential harms and risks associated with their use, counterfeit, unlicensed and illegal cannabis edibles have nevertheless appeared on North American cannabis markets Health Canada, They are sold on darknet markets, through social media see Section Online distribution of cannabis products and at street level. Of particular concern are recent German federal police reports indicating an increase in the availability of THC-infused edibles, some of which are sold in packages mimicking branded sweets see Boxes Edibles: increased risks of poisoning and Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Based on the data currently available, it is difficult to estimate the size of the European market for cannabis edibles, or their manufacturing locations and trafficking routes. In particular, North America appears to be an important source. E-liquids liquids used in electronic vaping devices containing concentrates of phytocannabinoids, semi-synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids appear to have become available and increasingly popular among European consumers over the past few years. Included in this category are products containing synthetic cannabinoids mis-sold as containing THC or CBD, which can pose a high risk of poisoning because of their high potency EMCDDA, b, c see Box e-Liquids containing synthetic cannabinoids detected in France. Similar to many other recently emerging cannabis consumer products, cannabis e-liquids and associated products were initially developed in North America, where they are now widely available and popular, particularly among young people Lim et al. In the United States, in the summer of , there was an outbreak of e-cigarette or vaping use-associated lung injury EVALI related to counterfeit products containing deltaTHC, most probably due to contamination with vitamin E acetate. This outbreak resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people and thousands of hospitalisations across the country CDC, ; Duffy et al. However, insufficient information is available to adequately assess the potential toxicity of newer products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids Meehan-Atrash and Rahman, Most of these appear to have been smuggled in from North America see Box Seizures of cannabis liquids and oils destined for Europe. Cannabis is bought, sold and traded in a variety of ways across Europe using both offline and online methods. Offline methods include the use of dealers in open, semi-open and closed settings. Open markets can be street-based markets May and Hough, ; Skliamis and Korf, while semi-open markets are often located in clubs and other quasi-private settings Tzanetakis, In closed markets business is conducted on a trust basis Potter, Online methods include purchases facilitated via the surface web, social media channels and the darknet. These could be considered semi-open settings, whereby no established relationship is usually required, but buyers have to subscribe or register with channels and platforms to gain access. In online methods, monetary transactions and deliveries may take place without any face-to-face contact, as is especially the case with purchases over the darknet. Sometimes, however, online methods simply facilitate the contact between buyers and sellers, for example via social media, and the exchange of money and drugs might still take place in person Mounteney et al. Evidence indicates that cannabis is relatively frequently shared within peer groups, sometimes without any monetary exchange or in a non-commercial or non-profit manner. This also extends to cannabis resin. Similarly, a study among cannabis coffeeshop visitors in Amsterdam from seven different European countries 4 , investigating how participants usually acquired cannabis in their home countries, found that, in the past 12 months, While the social supply of cannabis seems to be relatively prevalent in the EU, research indicates that the sources from which users acquire their cannabis vary between countries. However, the proportion of participants who reported buying from friends and street dealers differed greatly between the seven countries included in the study. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Smaller numbers also reported using edibles 8 and cannabis oil 5 Some of these respondents provided detailed information enabling analysis of how herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are retailed in Europe. This finding supports other research indicating the growth of internet-based methods for purchasing drugs Barratt et al. However, the use of these methods appears to differ significantly between countries in Europe Skliamis and Korf, It should be noted that the results of the EWSD cannot readily be generalised to any larger populations. Significant differences among European countries were also apparent in the use of different delivery methods see Table Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. At the aggregate level, for the 7 EWSD respondents reporting how they usually buy cannabis resin, and how it is delivered to them, the results are broadly similar to those of herbal cannabis see Figures In the last 12 months, how did you usually buy cannabis resin hashish? At the country-level, however, some differences are observable see Table Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Delivery methods were shown by the EWSD to be fairly consistent between cannabis resin and herbal cannabis at the aggregate level see Figure In the last 12 months, how was the cannabis resin hashish usually delivered to you? As already indicated, a range of sources of acquisition and delivery methods are used for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin in Europe see Tables Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin and Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. The data appear to point to distinct retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, both in Europe as a whole and within individual countries, although caution is required when comparing these data, due to small sample sizes in some countries and also because of the relatively small sample size for resin. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that it is important to analyse the herbal cannabis and cannabis resin markets separately Vuolo and Matias, Data from eight darknet markets gathered in Cannazon, Alphabay, ASAP, Cypher, Dark0dereborn, Royal, Versus and World showed a total of 13 unique listings 5 sale offers for cannabis products reported as being shipped from an EU country in To put this in context, while not directly comparable, in a similar scanning exercise conducted in , 10 listings were found for cocaine and 1 for methamphetamine. This includes high-THC products such as concentrates e. However, caution is needed in interpreting these data as neither the number of transactions nor the number of individual sellers can be extrapolated from the number of listings alone. Nonetheless, listings provide a useful indicator of the activity on darknet markets. The typical quantity most frequently observed value of herbal cannabis offered was 5 grams 1 listings , followed by 10 grams 1 and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 14 in 74 listings of 1 gram. In , bulk listings of herbal cannabis were observed see Table Quantity and price details of bulk herbal cannabis listings shipping from EU, The typical quantity of cannabis resin offered in was 5 grams , followed by 10 grams and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 15 in 20 listings of 1 gram. There were 64 bulk listings of cannabis resin observed in However, due to the limited price data available for analysis, caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings. A small proportion of the listings on darknet markets in included cannabis concentrates and edibles. Social media platforms are frequently used to promote and sell cannabis products see forthcoming EU Drug Markets: Drivers and Facilitators , section on Social media and instant messaging apps. Cannabis products have been found to feature prominently on Facebook, where they represent the majority of the drug content advertised for sale, as seen in Denmark, Iceland and Sweden Demant et al. Overall, social media platforms appear to be frequently used to promote drug sales, sometimes using creative photo or video editing or other marketing techniques Geoffroy, ; Paolini and Lepoivre, ; MCP, ; see also Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Cannabis influencers, that is, individuals promoting cannabis products to their followers on social media platforms, have become particularly active on Instagram. While most cannabis influencers appear to be male, there are indications that female influencers are becoming more active on social media Bakken and Harder, This may be part of a broader push towards commercialising cannabis and attempting to sell licensed and unlicensed products to a mainstream audience, in addition to influencing ongoing policy debates. Estimating the size of illicit drug markets is inherently difficult and cannabis is no exception. Nevertheless, because cannabis is the drug most frequently used in Europe and its use generally has a higher level of social acceptance compared to other illicit drugs, there are comparatively more comprehensive and robust data relating to its use. These data enable a more accurate estimation of the size of the illicit market for cannabis. However, this market is becoming increasingly complex due to the emergence of new products, for which data are limited. Thus, any estimate of the size of the illicit cannabis market is restricted to herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Using the methodology established by the EMCDDA b , it was estimated that cannabis products account for the largest share of the overall illicit drug retail market in the EU, with an estimated value in of at least EUR Out of this total, the illicit market for herbal cannabis was estimated to be worth at least EUR 8. In comparison, the illicit cannabis resin market was estimated to be worth at least EUR 2. This estimate is based on the number of users and their patterns of use, the amount used per year and the average price paid at the retail level. This method, often called a demand-side approach, however, is prone to underestimation due to the misreporting and under-reporting of use Udrisard et al. The basic model used in the estimation process can be expressed in the following simple arithmetic form:. The estimated number of cannabis users was calculated based on prevalence data from general population surveys GPS and categorised according to frequency of use see Box Links between frequency of use and sources of acquiring cannabis. Separate estimates were generated for cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, and, given the high numbers of cannabis users, it was possible to obtain information on the amounts of each product used by different types of users. Individuals were categorised into four different groups according to frequency of cannabis use, as follows:. Taken together, these data were used to estimate the illicit retail market size for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin respectively. There are limitations to this method. For example, for some variables where no data were available, it was necessary to impute values. This included instances when a country had no price data, in which case a simple average of the values for the other countries was used, and when prevalence data was not available for , instead of which the latest available data were used. Occasionally, EU Member States construct their own market size estimates for drugs that are particularly relevant at the national level. For example, Czech authorities have developed an estimate for the market size of methamphetamine, the most prevalent synthetic stimulant used in the country. Based on the latest available data, this illicit cannabis market had an estimated annual turnover of EUR 1. Such national estimates are useful to contextualise the overall EU estimate. In a literature review conducted for this analysis Udrisard et al. Europe featured as a region of focus in two of the studies and nine of the studies looked at cannabis alone. The majority used a demand-side approach, while two employed a supply-side methodology see Box Supply-side approaches to estimating the size of illicit drug markets , and three used a combination of both. As already highlighted, estimating cannabis consumption using wastewater is challenging, and more research is needed in this area, which may improve the use of this method in the future Causanilles et al. Ten of the studies employing the demand-side approach augmented user numbers by drawing on general population surveys and complementary sources to account for under-represented user populations. These include, for example, teenagers aged 15 and under, people with high-risk patterns of use, such as opioid users, or prisoners and homeless populations, all of whom may be excluded, to varying degrees, from GPS but can represent a significant number of cannabis users. All of the demand-side attempts to estimate illicit drug market sizes suffer from under-reporting, whereby people report no use or less frequent use, or do not respond to a representative survey, such as a GPS. Among the 15 papers using survey data, seven applied correction factors for under-reporting in order to provide new prevalence rates Udrisard et al. Data on quantities used also present issues that require a degree of interpretation and making assumptions. For example, while two studies asked questions about how many cannabis joints were smoked, neither asked about the typical amount of cannabis contained in one joint. To fill such data gaps, information on quantities used can be collected via non-representative surveys that specifically target people who use drugs. This is the basis for using data from the European Web Survey on Drugs to develop an EU-level estimate of the illicit cannabis market. It is notable that while some studies considered the issue of cannabis sharing and how this impacted on their market size estimates, it was concluded that there was no real evidence of a global overestimation. While estimates were not revised to account for this potential issue, researchers have strongly recommended further research in this area Udrisard et al. The study conducted for estimating the size of illicit drug markets in the EU concluded that there remains a strong suspicion that demand-based estimates, especially for the drugs most used in Europe, underestimate the real size of these markets Udrisard et al. Nevertheless, the expert consultation that was part of the study confirmed that there are very few alternatives to demand-based approaches for drug market estimates. Overall, further research is needed in this area. Further information is available online. However, respondents from these partner countries are not included in the analysis presented in this report. 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Buying hash Velenje