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Based on an anonymous on-line questionnaire survey, conducted among respondents, the authors present their demographic, socio-economic and spatial profile, their attitude to cannabis and the tourist trips they went on scale, directions, destinations , involving cannabis consumption. Tourist trips of this kind were attractive to quite a large number of young people, mostly inhabiting large Polish cities, who usually had used and continued to use this drug. Trips inspired by cannabis were most often made to the nearby Czech Republic and Netherlands, as well as less frequently to Spain. Google Scholar. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, Papathanassis ed. KORF D. Adamczyk ed. Consuming ayahuasca, Annals of Tourism Research, 52, pp. Godlewski, M. Zalech eds. Ayahuasca seekers in Amazonia, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 37 2 , pp. Subscription The electronic version of the journal is fully available on the website in Open Access: link Paid subscription for print version only. For further information, please contact: ksiegarnia uni. Downloads Download data is not yet available. Downloads PDF. Published How to Cite Matczak, A. Cannabis indica as a motivation for foreign travel by Polish citizens. Issue Vol. Early View. Make a Submission Make a Submission. Most readed Customer-perceived importance of restaurant attributes for casual dining, fast food and coffee shops. Travel decision making through blogs and vlogs: An empirical investigation on how user-generated content influences destination image. Workplace experiences and career advancement prospects for women in the hotel industry in India. An investigation into resilience strategies in the medical tourism supply chain. Oud Batavia as a heritage site within Jakarta: Tourist revisit intentions. Current Issue.

Cannabis indica as a motivation for foreign travel by Polish citizens

Buying hash Lodz

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This review attempts to evaluate the available literature on the ecology, chemical composition, phytochemistry, pharmacology, traditional uses, industrial uses, and toxicology of Cannabis sativa. So far, chemical compounds have been isolated from Cannabis , including cannabinoids and non-cannabinoids. The psychoactive and physiologically active part of the plant is a cannabinoid, mostly found in the flowers, but also present in smaller amounts in the leaves, stems, and seeds. Of all phytochemicals, terpenes form the largest composition in the plant. Pharmacological evidence reveals that the plants contain cannabinoids which exhibit potential as antioxidants, antibacterial agents, anticancer agents, and anti-inflammatory agents. Furthermore, the compounds in the plants have reported applications in the food and cosmetic industries. Significantly, Cannabis cultivation has a minimal negative impact on the environment in terms of cultivation. Most of the studies focused on the chemical make-up, phytochemistry, and pharmacological effects, but not much is known about the toxic effects. Overall, the Cannabis plant has enormous potential for biological and industrial uses, as well as traditional and other medicinal uses. However, further research is necessary to fully understand and explore the uses and beneficial properties of Cannabis sativa. Throughout human civilization, there has been a pursuit of plants for their unique potential, including medicinal use. Evidence of this dates back to 60, years, with a recent discovery of a 5,year-old Sumerian clay tablet that confirms the use of medicinal plants in drug production Sumner, Natural resources like medicinal plants, also known as green medicine, are gaining popularity worldwide due to their safety, effectiveness, cultural acceptance, and lower risk of adverse effects compared to synthetic medications Mustafa et al. Cannabis sativa L. This annual plant is a member of the family Cannabaceae and a widespread plant found in varied environments Andre et al. It has been used by humans for over 5, years and is one of the oldest plant sources of food and fiber Appendino et al. The botanical types of Cannabis sativa differ in terms of their chemical content, plant growth habits, agronomic requirements, and processing Datwyler and Weiblen, The flower, leaves, oil, and trichome of the plant have been shown to be cytotoxic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antipyretic, and appetite-stimulating Russo and Marcu, The flower extracts with antioxidant activity have been shown to have health-promoting and anti-aging properties, and are utilized to treat a variety of metabolic and chronic disorders, including glaucoma, pain, depression, cancer, liver disease, cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome Nallathambi et al. As an agricultural crop, industrial Cannabis hemp , is a plant that may be harvested for its fiber Johnson, While in the cosmetic industry, it is used for skincare products such as anti-aging creams and hair food Schettino et al. Traditionally, the seeds are used for making oil, while the leaves were the second most consumed part of the plant and were used in various ways, such as seasoning, baking, flour, and added to meals Iftikhar et al. However, due to widespread transportation and modification by humans over the past 6, years, it is challenging to determine its original geographic range or whether a plant collected in nature is a primitive wild type or has been influenced by human domestication Sharma, It can be found in various places such as fields, trash heaps, vacant lots, pastures, ditches, creeks, and open woods. However, it is poorly adapted to infiltrating established perennial stands and typically invades only after the soil has been recently disturbed or plowed Small, Except in drainage channels, where it is extremely well suited, weedy Cannabis sativa is a slow colonizer, spreading slowly throughout the landscape. It is possible to judge the ecology of Cannabis sativa prior to human intervention based on the circumstances and adaptations of existing wild-growing populations of this plant species Small, Additionally, analyzing the physical characteristics of wild Cannabis sativa plants, such as their size, leaf shape, and stem structure, can provide clues about their adaptation to various environmental conditions Ren et al. Before Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in the 18th century, domestic hemp was known by various names, including Cannabis angustifolia , Cannabis sativa , and Cannabis indica Linnaeus, Later, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed a division between extensively cultivated Cannabis species in western continents and the wild variety found in India Erkelens and Hazekamp, Below is the botanical classification of Cannabis plant Figure 1 Small, In the early 20th century, a new species called Cannabis ruderalis emerged, but it was not until that the restoration of the Cannabis indica species to its current name was proposed Holland, Figure 2 presents the name of Cannabis in some popular languages. Cannabis is a polymorphic plant, and chemotaxonomic markers are effective in differentiating between different Cannabis germplasms and screening for hybrids Piomelli and Russo, Small and Cronquist used biphasic techniques use of distinct approaches to identify the four subspecies of Cannabis sativa , including sativa var. Both variants of the subspecies sativa are widely cultivated in North America, Europe, and Asia, and have low intoxicating potential when compared to other Cannabis cultivars Small and Cronquist, An illegal drug is defined as a chemical or preparation associated with severe punishments due to its actual or suspected detrimental properties Smith et al. Cannabis has been criminalized since the Second World War due to its popular use as a recreational substance, leading to limited research and commercial development in the sector. As a result, research and commercial development on the plant was prohibited for most of the 20th century Appendino et al. Cannabis sativa became the most commonly cultivated black market crop in the Western world after World War II, leading to the allocation of significant law enforcement resources to remove the plants Chouvy, Scientific investigations in Western countries were mostly approved for criminal justice-related forensic studies to assist law enforcement or medical and social-related studies to document and alleviate negative consequences Chandra et al. Criminalizing Cannabis has led to high law enforcement costs and social instability, and many jurisdictions are looking to reduce penalties for its possession and consumption Small, The legalization of medical Cannabis is widely accepted, but recreational use is still under debate Cruz et al. While punishments for illegal drug use have softened in several countries due to increased public acceptance, although, capital punishment is still a possibility in some Asian countries Chandra et al. The decriminalization of Cannabis use is not unique to the North American continent. More than forty countries have legalized the use of marijuana for medical or recreational purposes. New strains are approved for use in Canada until , and Health Canada has issued regulations amending the Cannabis Act and Cannabis Regulations to ensure proper regulation of Cannabis Canada, ; Caplan, The cannabinoids in Cannabis are unique terpene phenolic substances. Cannabis and opioids are legally grouped, but they are pharmacologically distinct. CBD has a stimulant effect in low and moderate concentrations, and only in high concentrations has a soothing effect Piomelli and Russo, There is still some disagreement on how Cannabis should be pharmacologically classified Kalant, In some cases, Cannabis has been classified as a sedative-hypnotic-general anesthetic, a mixed stimulant-depressant, a mild hallucinogen, and a psychedelic Degenhardt et al. In surgical and dental procedures, it is referred to as a sedative-hypnotic general anesthetic. According to Troutt and DiDonato , medical Cannabis users in the United States are characterized by daily dosing and weekly consumption of 6—9 g Ko et al. In Canada and the United States, most patients inhale Ilgen et al. Bar-Or et al. In Europe, Czechia has the highest incidence of Cannabis use of However, in terms of revenue generation, the United States leads in terms of the sale of medical Cannabis , with an annual total of 10 billion dollars, a significant portion of which comes from therapeutic marijuana Kilmer and MacCoun, In Europe, Germany leads in the sale of medical marijuana, with an estimate Between and , 19 African countries reported the cultivation of Cannabis within their borders. Male flowers lack petals and grow in axillary or terminal panicles, while female flowers have a single ovule and a perianth that is tightly attached Farag and Kayser, ; Bonini et al. The fruit of each flower is a single small smooth light brownish-grey fruit that is then passed on to the next-generation. Female flowers grow at the end of the stem and in the axils. They have one ovule and a perianth that is tightly connected. Male flowers, on the other hand, have five yellowish petals and five anthers Farag and Kayser, The number of natural chemicals isolated from Cannabis sativa L. In , compounds were discovered, which grew to by Matsuda et al. Currently, compounds have been identified and isolated which constitutes over 18 classes of different secondary metabolites found in the plant. These substances have been found to be highly abundant in the flowers and leaves of the plant Kopustinskiene et al. Out of this number, are cannabinoids, are non-cannabinoids and are terpenes, constituting a total of The rest of the substances identified in the plant in include 2 alkaloids, 34 flavonoids, 42 phenols and 3 sterols Al Ubeed et al. The aromatic quality of female Cannabis plants is due to the terpenes they produce, such as pinene, limonene, terpineol, and borneol McPartland et al. These terpenes have insect-repellent properties and inhibit the growth of neighboring vegetation. The glandular trichomes on the plant produce a resin that acts as a sophisticated defense mechanism against insects and has the potential to serve as an antibiotic and antifungal agent. The various phytochemicals are summarized below. Cannabinoids undergo decarboxylation during drying, storage, and thermal processing, converting from an acidic to a neutral state. A total of phytocannabinoids have been identified and divided into 11 categories Berman et al. Table 1 lists the 11 subclasses of phytocannabinoids. Rhee et al. Devane et al. The analysis of 51 samples sourced from various geographic regions led to research on the C3 homologs of Cannabis Turner et al. Balcke et al. Cannabis ol, a dimeric cannabinoid, was also isolated using flash silica gel column chromatography from Cannabis samples that contained a significant amount of CBG Costa et al. Eight new substances of the tetrahydrocannabinol family are listed in Table 2. Mechoulam et al. Cannabigerovarinic acid CBGVA—the structure of compound 1 in Table 3 isolated from an extract of the dried leaves of Thai Cannabis was found to be a minor component of the extract Thomas, ; Van Os et al. After extraction of the acid fraction from the leaves using silica gel column chromatography, the acid fraction was eluted from the dried leaves using a mixture of hexane, ethyl acetate, and a ratio of of benzene to acetone. The transparent needle-like CBGVA crystals were obtained following recrystallization in hexane: ethyl acetate solution in a ratio of The primary difference between the two is the location of the double bond in their molecular structures Taura et al. It is synthesized by the plant from olivetolic acid and geranyl pyrophosphate. Taura et al. High-potency cannabigerolic acid esters, i. The hexane extract of Cannabis was purified by chromatography to obtain the two cannabigerolic acid esters. Appendino et al. Taylor et al. Matsuda et al. Later, CBC-C5 was isolated from dried the leaves at a yield of 1. The study found that cannabichromenic acid CBCA showed similarities to the structure of THCA in its infrared IR spectra due to the placement of the carboxyl group and the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The researchers isolated cannabichromevarin CBCV , a brownish-red cannabinoid, from neutral cannabinoids obtained from Thai Cannabis leaves through multiple passes through a silica gel column and elution with benzene and benzene-hexane Showalter et al. Lakhan and Rowland reported the isolation of three new cannabichromene type cannabinoids from high-potency benzene extract of the flowers trichomes. The two main metabolites of non-psychotropic fiber-type Cannabis cultivars are cannabidiol CBD and cannabidiolic acid CBDA , their structures were shown in Table 1 as compounds 7 and 8, respectively. CBD was isolated, from the ethanol extract of leaves, and after being left for several weeks, the oily CBD was crystallized Karniol and Carlini, Cannabidavarin CBDV was isolated from an ethanol extract of Cannabis olein flower , which was chromatographed on silica gel Iwamura et al. Howlett et al. Benzene was used to elute the cannabinoids after they had been chromatographed on Florisil. Cannabis resin and leaves that had been crushed were percolated with ethyl acetate to produce a residue that was filtered and concentrated. This residue was derivatized prior to GC-MS analysis. The mass and methylene unit of cannabidiol-C4 allowed for its identification Harvey, Cannabimovone CBM is a polar cannabinoid that was isolated from an acetone extract of Cannabis sativa L. By using a hexane-ether extract of Lebanese Cannabis resinous trichomes , Gorelick and Heishman were able to successfully isolate cannabidiol. CBE was isolated from an ethanolic extract of hashish resinous trichomes of flowers originating in Lebanon Di Forti et al. Benowitz and Jones are credited with being the first to identify CBL. Cannabinol CBN was given its name for the first time in Wood et al. CBN was made into oil by extracting Cannabis resin using ethanol and heating it. After some time, the oil was acetylated to get pure CBN in the form of its acetate. Bhattacharyya et al. A crude acidic fraction of hashish was used to isolate cannabinolic acid A CBNA , which was then esterified with diazomethane and purified as its methyl ester on an acid-washed alumina column Mechoulam and Shvo, Cannabivarin CBN-C3 was extracted using a mixture of chloroform and hexane from Nepalese hashish resin trichomes of flowers , and the structure of the compound was validated by mass spectrum data ElSohly and Gul, A summary of some isolated cannabinoids is presented in Table 3. Terpenes are aromatic compounds that are found in many plants, and they perform various biological roles, such as attracting pollinators and protecting against predation Tetali, In the Cannabis plant, terpenes are stored as essential oils. Currently, over distinct terpenes have been identified in Cannabis , with most of them being discovered through steam distillation Booth and Bohlmann, Terpene concentrations can vary due to various genetic factors. However, selective breeding has led to an increase in terpenoid concentrations found in flowers in recent years, with some chemovars exhibiting concentrations of 3. Similarly, Fischedick and others analyzed Cannabis samples and classified them into five distinct groups based on the above terpenoid classifications Fischedick, Secondly, several terpenes found in Cannabis exist as hydrocarbons which are direct products of terpene synthase enzymes as compared to complex terpenes that require adjustments by other enzymes such as cytochrome P ElSohly, It can be concluded that the chemical diversity of terpenes in Cannabis is a direct reflection of the encoding enzymes in Cannabis. Therefore, in the synthesis of sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes, GPP and FPP act as substrates in producing different structures of terpenes. At least 20 flavonoids have been found in Cannabis , most of which are flavanols and flavones Li et al. In , three geranylated flavones known as cannflavin A, B, and C were found in the plant Bautista et al. Currently, the leaves, flowers, seedlings, and fruits of C. Apart from finding this compound in specific regions of the plant, flavonoids have been identified to vary in bracts during plant development Ross et al. Since several flavonoids have protective functions, their production is dependent on environmental factors that have been found in several plants as well as Cannabis. For instance, the accumulation of cannflavin A is predisposed to genetic variations, as well as environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity in the environment Kumar and Pandey, Besides, the contents of cannflavin A, B, and C in cloned species of C. With these findings, it can be postulated that identifying unknown flavonoids in the plant, is reliant on certain environmental conditions or stresses. Another study by Pavlovic et al. Thus, identifying more flavonoids in C. Cannabis has 26 distinct flavonoids ElSohly, There are various flavonoids in Cannabis , but the most important ones are orientin, vitexin, luteolinO-glucoside, and apigeninO-glucoside ElSohly, Moreover, it contains the potent antioxidant, quercetin Mnekin and Ripoll, Cannabinoids are a new type of flavonoid. They are made up of three chemicals found only in Cannabis , i. Cannflavin A is 30 times more anti-inflammatory than aspirin Barrett et al. Presently, steroid compounds such as campesterol, sitosterol, and stigmasterol have been identified in Cannabis roots Ryz et al. Moreover, eleven phytosterols have been found in the plant which belongs to the groups stated above Farinon et al. These three phytosterols were also found in Cannabis smoke, according to research by Kumar et al. Recent research by Ferrini et al. Alkaloids are part of the chemical defense mechanism used by plants to ward off herbivores Walters, It has been shown that Cannabis contains endogenous indole alkaloids Fasakin et al. For example, alkaloids may be used as analgesics, antibiotics, anticancer drugs, antiarrhythmics, asthma medications, antimalarials, anticholinergics, bronchodilators, laxatives, miotics, oxytocics, vasodilators, psychotropics, and stimulants Manske and Holmes, Included in this group of chemicals are morphine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, quinine, ephedrine, and many more Yan et al. A group of researchers led by Klein in researched Cannabis alkaloid combinations and reported the isolation of four different alkaloids, which they called cannabimines A-D Garcia-Romeu et al. In the study of cannabinoids, Cannabisativine was the pioneering alkaloid. In , it was extracted from the roots of a Mexican variety of Cannabis sativa that was growing in Mississippi, United States. The compound was extracted using methanol as a solvent. Chandra et al. These alkaloids were shown to have diuretic, analgesic, anticancer, antipyretic, and antiemetic effects Lata et al. In , Siebold and Bradbury presented their findings on the separation of the alkaloid cannabinine at the British Pharmaceutical Conference Warden, The next year, in , Hay discovered tetanocannabin, another physiologically active alkaloid. Fatty acids carry out their physiological activities due to the involvement of their functional groups in various chemical processes. Some of the fatty acids produced by Cannabis sativa L. The fatty acids produced by Cannabis sativa L. In , Ross and others investigated the fatty acid profile of lipid matter in commercialized Cannabis seeds from several geographical locations. Omega-3 fatty acids such as linolenic acid, isolinolenic acid, and eicosapentaenoic acid; omega-6 fatty acids such as linoleic acid and others such as Caproic acid, caprylic acid, myristic acid, palmitoleic acid, palmitic acid, margaric acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, isoarachidic acid, and behenic acid are just some of the fatty acids found in commercial Cannabis sativa Kriese et al. The oil content of the Cannabis plant varies depending on various factors such as the cultivar, growing conditions, and the part of the plant that is being analyzed. Therefore, the seeds are the primary source of oil extracted from the Cannabis plant for both industrial and nutritional purposes Potter, Cannabis is not typically considered a significant dietary source of fatty acids. While Cannabis does contain various fatty acids, the concentrations are relatively low compared to other food sources vegetable oils that have high concentrations of fatty acids Callaway, Almost half of hulled Cannabis seeds are made up of fat triglycerides , and the oil that is extracted from them is unique among cooking oils because its triglycerides include very low levels of saturated fatty acids 0. Additionally, C. Hemp oil, pressed from the seeds of the Cannabis plant, is rich in a wide variety of nutrients, including essential fatty acids EFAs such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, vitamins C, E, B1, B2, B6, B12, and folate , minerals including calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, sodium, and copper , and macronutrients fat, carbohydrates, fiber, and protein Silver et al. Plants create waxes, a class of non-volatile, larger molecular weight, hydrophobic chemicals, to shield their leaves and stem from dehydration and disease Ribeiro et al. They may also serve to stabilize defense chemicals, like the phytocannabinoids and terpenes found in Cannabis , which are produced on plant inflorescence flower heads Romero et al. If compared to Cannabis leaves, the wax content in Cannabis inflorescence is three times higher Tipple et al. As a result, waxes are a crucial category of phytochemicals to consider during such production. A summary of the structures of other important phytochemicals are provided in Table 4. The Cannabis plant has been used for centuries and is one of the most beneficial plant genera. Historically, the seeds were used for making oil and pickles, while the leaves were the second most consumed part of the plant and were used in various ways, such as seasoning, flour, and added to meals Balant et al. Historically, the psychedelic and recreational use of Cannabis dates to the early s in tropical parts of the world such as South America and Africa. However, the psychedelic use of the plant did not make it to Europe and America until after the s Balant et al. In countries outside the tropics, the psychoactive components of Cannabis are not present in the variants grown. Cannabis has a long history of medicinal and psychoactive use in India, and it became known in America and Europe in the 19th century for its narcotic and stimulant properties Tipparat et al. Cannabis cultivation, commercialization, and use as a recreational drug has a significant incidence on a global basis, and often fall within the realm of illicit activities Carnevale et al. However, the comparatively low proportion of psychotropic use does not match the significance of these activities Carnevale et al. The CANNUSE database documents various methods of using Cannabis for psychoactive purposes, including smoking leaves or inflorescences, ingesting preparations made from leaves, inflorescences, and shoots, and consuming preparations of varying intensity such as charas, attar, hashish, ganja, and plant powder Boniotti and Griffith, ; Balant et al. The most common ways of administering Cannabis for psychoactive purposes are smoking The leaf is the most commonly used part of the plant, accounting for The Cannabis -based food industry mostly uses seeds and derivatives, but other plant parts like sprouts, leaves, and flowers are consumed raw in dishes and drinks. These plant parts contain higher levels of bioactive phytochemicals like polyphenols and cannabinoids than seeds. Ingesting Cannabis makes up 7. Seeds are the most common plant component used for food, and this association is statistically significant. Seeds are popular among Asian senior citizens due to their high protein content and low glycemic index Haldar et al. Cannabis seeds can be found in different forms such as energy bars, chocolates, flour, baked products, milk, and flavoring sauce. It also has antiglaucoma, antimicrobial, and antiemetic properties. Additionally, it has anti-obesity and anti-cancer properties De Meijer et al. Some of these pharmacological potentials are summarized below in Figure 6. The bactericidal activity of C. Antibacterial activities of C. The oil from the seeds of the plant was extracted using petroleum ether and methanol and was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Interestingly, while the petroleum ether extract was found to be ineffective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa , it was observed to have some mild activity against Gram-negative bacteria Ali et al. The principal components of C. Also, Karas et al. Helicobacter pylori , a Gram-negative bacteria, was likewise shown to be susceptible to the antimicrobial effect, although no antifungal activity was detected Fufa, Several S. This bactericidal action, however, was diminished in the presence of horse serum, most likely because of the cannabinoids binding to plasma proteins Lohar and Rathore, Blaskovich et al. Activity against B. In addition to reducing biofilm formation, the use of certain Cannabis -infused medicines was found to modify other biofilm-associated virulence factors such as cell aggregation, hydrophobicity, membrane potential, and spreading ability Feldman et al. These medicines can be used in conjunction with standard antibiotics like ampicillin and gentamicin to treat MRSA biofilm infections that have shown resistance to other treatments. CBD has also been shown to enhance the antibacterial action of the peptide medication bacitracin against Staphylococcus species, L. Several commonly used cannabinoids showed moderate to excellent activity; these findings were generally consistent with those of prior research vide supra. The MIC values increased by up to a factor of four Ranieri et al. CBD was also found by Sionov and Steinberg to be a synergistic agent when combined with different antibiotics. CBD was found to significantly inhibit the release of membrane vesicles by Gram-negative pathogens, which are involved in bacterial communication. These findings suggest that these cannabinoids may be used to increase efficiency and broaden the action of currently available antibiotics, which is an important development in the field of antibiotic resistance. The Cannabis plant and its secondary metabolites have also been studied for their antifungal capabilities. Popescu-Spineni et al. In both instances, the concentration of the leaf extract was 10 times greater compared to the antifungal antibiotic Nystatin , although the zone of inhibition was substantially larger with the antifungal antibiotic. The antifungal properties of Cannabis sativa L. However, while the whole-plant petroleum ether extract exhibited some action against C. For their ability to prevent the spread of the seed-borne phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria spp. Although all plants showed some antifungal activity, some were far more effective than others. The percentage of mycelial development that Cannabis sativa L. The acetone-based extract proved to be the most effective antifungal agent among 5 distinct extract types. Some properties are summarized in Table 5 below. CB derivatives have been shown to suppress the growth and survival of multiple forms of cancer cells. The underlying processes of the effects may be unique to each type of cell, and CBs can target tumors specifically to disrupt signaling and biological processes, leading to growth pause, cell death, and migratory blockage Alexander et al. CBs may also have indirect effects on the tumor microenvironment, immune response, and vascularization suppression. Both direct and indirect anticancer effects of CBs have been studied Hellmich and Szabo, In recent decades, there have been significant studies on the purity, efficacy, and therapeutic utility of Cannabis and cannabinoids CBs in preclinical and clinical cancer models. CBs have shown promise in treating and diagnosing cancer-related symptoms. THC, a type of CB, has been observed to accelerate the death of tumor cells compared to healthy cells. Non-psychoactive CBD has been studied as a potential anticancer drug due to its action in vitro and in vivo against tumor cells produced from CBs found in C. Meanwhile, THC was administered to terminal cancer patients. However, the precise chemical pathways by which CBs exert their anticancer effects are not completely understood suggesting that more research involving the antitumor effects of CBs should be done. Chung et al. Epidermal growth factor EGF signaling activation is essential for tumor cell growth, survival, and progression Lau et al. In addition to its ability to destroy cancer cells, Cannabis sativa extract has anti-nausea and anti-vomiting properties that are beneficial for cancer patients. As a result, multinational corporations are now offering medications containing cannabinoids in the form of plant extracts or volatile oils. Sativex, a standardized extract of Cannabis sativa L. Various anticancer activities of cannabis found in liver, breast, bladder and lung are summarized below Figure 7. Liver cancer is a leading cause of mortality and suffering worldwide Torre et al. CBs have been found to have anticancer effects by triggering apoptosis and suppressing telomerase activity. Low molecular weight hemp peptides have been shown to induce apoptosis, decrease cell viability, and reduce cell motility in Hep3B human liver cancer cells without modifying the baseline overexpression of cleaved caspase 3 and Bad, or downregulation of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 Salamat et al. Breast cancer is the deadliest disease affecting females worldwide Akram et al. CBs inhibited tumor invasion and metastasis in animal models and reduced EGF-induced proliferation and chemotaxis in triple-negative breast cancer cells Arkell et al. CBD inhibited Id-1 receptor expression, cell proliferation, and invasion in breast cancer cells. Smoking cigarettes is a major contributor to the development of bladder cancer Brennan et al. Numerous polls have found that a large percentage of cigarette smokers also regularly consume Cannabis Hindocha et al. To determine the link between Cannabis and cigarette use and the development of bladder cancer in men in California, Thomas et al. They interviewed 84, males to find out about their habits like smoking and using Cannabis. Small-cell and non-small-cell lung cancers are the most common forms of lung cancer, with tobacco use, family history, and exposure to radon gas increasing the likelihood of developing the disease Zou et al. CBs have been studied in vivo for their efficacy against lung cancer, and CBD therapy has been found to inhibit tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis in mice bearing xenografts of A cells Solinas et al. In vitro , investigations using lung cancer cell lines A, H, and H showed that CBD upregulated the antimetastatic protein ICAM-1, which is hypothesized to reduce tumor development through an immunosurveillance mechanism Benedicto et al. As a neurological condition, epilepsy is characterized by aberrant brain activity and frequent seizures Rana and Musto, During the first decade of life, this affects about 1 in children Ramantani et al. Epileptic encephalopathies are characterized by refractory seizures, severe electroencephalographic abnormalities, and developmental impairment Khan and Al Baradie, Clinical evidence for the use of CBs in the management of epilepsy has been backed up by preliminary studies Antonarakis et al. Ellen et al. A large, prospective, single-center, open-label study of CBD for the treatment of medication-resistant epilepsy in children and adults showed striking improvements in disease phenotype in response to CBD therapy for 72 children and 60 adults Sher and Maldonado, These results suggest that CBs including CBD may be useful for the treatment of epilepsy and other neurological disorders Kaplan et al. Furthermore, CBD proved beneficial in reducing seizure frequency in a comprehensive trial and meta-analysis of its efficacy for treatment-resistant epilepsy Pamplona et al. There are motor and non-motor symptoms associated with this kind of neurodegenerative disease. The basal ganglia of the brain are where endocannabinoids are most concentrated. Rats given either high or moderate dosages of CBD in an experiment by Silvestro et al. Peppermint oil, 0. After receiving treatment, patients reported significantly higher ratings of central neuropathic pain on the point numerical rating scale, with a negative number indicating an increase in pain from pre-treatment levels. Thomas et al. Consistent and sufficient data is, therefore, lacking to form accurate conclusions on the efficacy of Cannabis in lowering the pain intensity associated with SCI, indicating that more study is needed in this area. Cannabis is used by inflammatory Bowel Disease IBD patients to alleviate symptoms and improve their quality of life. Endocannabinoids ECS help in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, which requires a combination of centrally and peripherally mediated actions Russia et al. The ECS consists of endocannabinoids, enzymes that make and break down endocannabinoids, and CB receptors that mediate endocannabinoid effects Kilaru and Chapman, The endocannabinoid system ECS is present throughout the gut and controls several digestive processes such as GI motility, inflammation, and immune response. Cannabis can potentially impact these processes by activating the receptors in the ECS, leading to an increase in food intake and metabolic processes like lipolysis and glucose metabolism Sergi et al. Cannabis is used for various gastrointestinal GI ailments, including enteric infections, inflammation, motility difficulties, emesis, and stomach discomfort. Cannabis formulations have been shown to significantly reduce the severity of colitis in experimental animal models of IBD. The ECS plays an inhibitory role in the GI tract by suppressing motility and secretion and controlling pain perception. According to Kanabus et al. This requirement is in place to prevent the production of edible Cannabis products, but the consumption of hemp seeds is still allowed. The hemp-based agri-food chain may be the biggest step forward for this industry. Demand for hemp-based foods has increased fivefold from levels Moliterni et al. Hemp seed flour is a healthy alternative to wheat flour. Celiacs can eat it without worry because it does not contain gluten Sorrentino, Recent studies by Bao et al. Cannabis seeds are frequently used in traditional cosmetic treatments, especially for hair care, due to their high oil content. Michailidis et al. Cannabis stems are also highly valued, particularly in Pakistan Michailidis et al. Moreover, Cannabis seed oil is often used as a hair food due to its rich nutritional profile. The oil is particularly high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which are essential for maintaining healthy hair Crini et al. These fatty acids help to nourish and moisturize the hair, making it softer, smoother, and more manageable. They also help to prevent hair breakage, split ends, and dryness, which can lead to hair loss over time Callaway, In addition to its fatty acid content, Cannabis seed oil is also high in carotenoids, which have been shown to promote hair growth and improve hair health Baral et al. Cannabis seed oil can be used in a variety of ways as a hair treatment. It can be applied directly to the scalp and hair as a hair mask, left on for several minutes or overnight, and then rinsed off with shampoo and conditioner. The oil can also be added to shampoos and conditioners to enhance their moisturizing and nourishing properties Baral et al. They can also help to improve the elasticity and overall appearance of the hair Nahhas et al. The endocannabinoid system ECS in the skin plays an important role in regulating cell differentiation, development, survival, inflammation and immune responses, pain perception, and hair growth Mnekin and Ripoll, CB1 is expressed in hair follicle cells, immune cells, and keratinocytes and regulates pain, neuronal activity, and inflammation. CB2 is found in sensory neurons, immune cells, sebaceous glands, and keratinocytes and also regulates inflammation Baswan et al. Activating CB1 has been shown to prevent keratinocytes from producing pro-inflammatory cytokines and maintaining the integrity of the epidermal barrier Gaffal et al. These carotenoids have antioxidant properties that can combat free radicals and protect against UV light Wisniewska et al. Carotenoids can also improve skin hydration, promote wound healing, and stimulate the production of collagen and elastin by activating fibroblasts Baswan et al. Chlorophyll has been shown to promote tissue growth and have antibacterial properties, making it potentially useful in wound healing and treating skin problems like acne, eczema, and ulcers. The green pigment in hemp seed oil comes from chlorophyll ElSohly, The Cannabis seed oil contains flavonoids, terpenes, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and phytosterols that contribute to its anti-inflammatory and anti-aging properties. The oil is quickly absorbed and does not clog pores, making it useful in formulations designed to soothe the skin, such as sunscreen creams and lotions. The natural presence of chlorophyll makes it potentially effective for wound healing and treating skin problems. Topical creams and ointments containing Cannabis seed oil have potential applications in anti-aging skincare Baral et al. The various uses are summarized below in Figure 8 below. Cannabis farming has a low negative environmental impact because it can proliferate, kill weeds, and does not require pesticides. It does not have parasites that are only beneficial for one plant, which helps with pollination and improves soil fertility Zheng et al. Its use as an oil crop was limited for most of its existence Small, Hemp was introduced for fiber production in Western Asia and Egypt between 1, and BC and later spread to Europe. Clarke and Merlin also provide an excellent overview of the historical and cultural use of Cannabis. Cannabis is considered an environmentally friendly crop in recent times, with added interest in its cultivation due to its potential to help combat climate change and desertification. Sorrentino, ; Zheng et al. Cannabis can reduce the amount of Carbon dioxide CO 2 in the atmosphere, and it is particularly effective due to its high rate of growth. This makes it a valuable agricultural species for reducing greenhouse gases. However, the current atmospheric CO 2 level is still much higher than pre-industrial levels, so further research is needed to find more effective ways to reduce carbon emissions Showalter et al. The use of slow-release nitrogen fertilizers in which urea is combined with an aldehyde like nitroform, methylene urea, or urea formaldehyde is recommended for Cannabis farming due to their positive impact on plant growth and seed quality Butsic et al. In contrast, the use of synthetic fertilizers like ammonium nitrate can increase greenhouse gas emissions like nitrous oxide N 2 O , which contributes to global warming and is a significant source of emissions in some countries Sorrentino, Cannabis has a different eco-physiological trait than cotton and kenaf, where it is not as efficient in using nitric nitrogen. However, it excels at photosynthetic metabolism at low nitrogen levels Dilley and Morrison, Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers, such as urea-formaldehyde, can reduce the amount of N 2 O released during the growth cycle, which is a significant contributor to greenhouse gases. Additionally, Cannabis stores CO 2 in its biomass, making it a potentially climate-friendly crop that can help prevent climate change Stone, Growing Cannabis has the potential to set up new supply chains due to the versatility of the different plant parts. This could be beneficial for farmers, the environment, and human health, making it an important plant for the new green economy Sorrentino, Various industries can use different parts of the plant: seeds for the agri-food industry, canapulo for the green building sector, fiber for the textile industry, and inflorescences and roots for the pharmaceutical and para-pharmaceutical industry through the extraction of bioactive molecules Akhtar et al. Cannabis requires nutrients and water to grow, with varying daily water use depending on location, soil, weather, and growing methods Carah et al. Outdoor Cannabis cultivation in California uses an average of 5. Agricultural usage, population growth, and climate change are expected to worsen water shortages, which will affect the Cannabis industry and harm the environment Schlenker et al. The amount of water needed for Cannabis plants to survive and thrive is a concern for the industry Moyle, Cannabis cultivation, particularly illegal cultivation, can lead to water contamination. The plant requires increased levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for optimal growth, but little research has been done on how this affects water quality globally Saloner et al. The use of pesticides, such as herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, nematocides, and rodenticides, can also contribute to water contamination when not properly checked, posing a threat to the environment Gabriel et al. Cannabis cultivation can lead to the contamination of soil, surface water, and groundwater due to the leakage of nitrogen and pesticides from runoff or rain Thompson et al. This can harm both humans and crops that consume these chemicals. The contamination of water caused by Cannabis cultivation can also impact the environment where other important irrigated crops are grown Thompson et al. However, it is difficult to link Cannabis farming practices to water pollution without proper measurement of water quality and chemical levels. Thus, legislation is needed to protect the environment from pollutions arising from commercial Cannabis cultivation. In this regard, Canada has some of the strictest environmental regulations for growing Cannabis indoors to mitigate the impact on the environment. Zheng et al. The cutting down of trees and clearing of forests for Cannabis cultivation exacerbates soil erosion. However, durable greenhouses can help prevent soil erosion by avoiding the need for massive clearings that expose soil to erosion Bauer et al. Cannabis can help address biodiversity loss by attracting pollinating insects due to its terpenoid essence, and its pollen can be blown up to 3 km, increasing the diversity of agroecosystems Sorrentino, The plant blooms at different times and provides ample pollen, making it an important source of food for bees Balcke et al. By creating a microclimate that is beneficial for pollinators, Cannabis contributes to the conservation of biodiversity, which is essential to the health of the planet Flicker et al. Another potential application of Cannabis is a bioremediation crop that can absorb and store heavy metals from the soil, making it effective in cleaning contaminated soil McPartland and McKernan, Tainted soil fertilizer is a common source of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Singani and Ahmadi found that Cannabis sativa may absorb lead and cadmium from manure-contaminated soils. There is an ongoing debate among experts regarding the safety of the plant. While in some parts of the world, it is viewed as a helpful medicine, in other parts it is seen as a dangerous substance if taken in large amounts, particularly when it comes to the consumption of Cannabis -containing foods or beverages Lindblom, Research suggests that certain genetic variants may increase the risk of mental health problems in individuals who use Cannabis due to its impact on brain development, including neuroanatomical alterations, respiratory problems, metabolic and neurotransmitter functioning, and neuronal activation Gage et al. Second, Cannabis has been linked with negative effects on conditions like cardiopulmonary arrest, coronary artery disease, transient ischemic attack, and cannabis arteritis. Additionally, exposure to high amounts of THC for recreational use has been found to negatively affect various physiological systems, including ophthalmological, gastrointestinal, respiratory, immunological, and hormonal systems Le Boisselier et al. However, serious poisoning is rare among adults and negative side effects are reported by only a small percentage of users. A study found that only 3. The flower was used in The study identified 45 different side effects, but only one mention of death Boakye et al. Furthermore, ancient medicine recognizes both the benefits of Cannabis and the risks of overuse Iber et al. Research has found that Cannabis has both stimulating and sedative effects, including increased appetite and aphrodisiac effects as well as the ability to cool the body Seltenrich, However, according to Volkow et al. Using the right amount of Cannabis is important for both medical and recreational purposes. Depending on the dose and length of use, Cannabis can also cause cancer, birth defects, and genetic changes. In addition to harming mental health, Cannabis use can negatively impact respiratory, cardiovascular, and bone functions Sharma et al. One of the main risks associated with Cannabis use is the potential for overconsumption, particularly when consuming edibles or other foods infused with Cannabis Lin et al. Overconsumption of Cannabis can cause severe side effects, including vomiting, nausea, anxiety, paranoia, and, in the extreme cases can lead to hospitalization Ford et al. A study found that the rate of emergency department visits related to Cannabis -containing edibles increased significantly after legalization in Colorado Heard et al. Moreover, one of the major safety concerns associated with Cannabis use is the potential for contamination with biological, physical, or chemical contaminants Rather et al. Microbial contamination of Cannabis -containing foods for instance can lead to foodborne illness, especially in persons with weak immune systems or other underlying health conditions. In one study, researchers analyzed a variety of Cannabis -infused food products and found that many were contaminated with high levels of bacteria including E. In addition to these risks, there is also the potential for adverse drug interactions between Cannabis and other medications, particularly those that are metabolized by the liver Brown and Winterstein, Cannabis can interact with certain medications, such as blood thinners and antidepressants, leading to unintended side effects or reduced effectiveness of these drugs Polson et al. Furthermore, there are concerns about the potential for Cannabis to interact with other medications or supplements Wheeler et al. For example, a study found that consuming grapefruit juice with Cannabis -containing products can increase the levels of THC in the blood, potentially leading to an increased risk of adverse effects Tireki, Another issue is the lack of standardized dosing guidelines for Cannabis -containing foods Nyland and Moyer, Because the potency of these products can vary widely, it can be difficult for consumers to know how much of a particular product they should consume to achieve the desired effects without risking overconsumption Potter, This has led to instances of accidental overconsumption and adverse effects, particularly in the case of edibles, which can be deceivingly potent Larkin Jr and Madras, Another concern is the potential for Cannabis -containing foods to be appealing to children and young people. As these products become more widely available, there is a risk that they could be mistaken for regular food items and ingested by children, potentially leading to serious adverse effects Karbakhsh et al. To address this issue, some jurisdictions have implemented packaging and labeling regulations for Cannabis -containing products to make them less appealing to children. Some states such as Colorado, California, and Washington have gone further, requiring that products be packaged in child-resistant containers or that the packaging be opaque or non-descript to reduce their appeal to children. Similarly, in Canada, the Cannabis Act requires that all Cannabis -containing products be packaged in child-resistant containers and display a standardized warning label that includes the THC content and other relevant information Leos-Toro, In addition, the act prohibits the use of branding and labeling that may appeal to children, such as cartoon characters or bright colors Leos-Toro, In Australia, Cannabis -containing products must be packaged in opaque, child-resistant packaging and display warnings about the potential health risks associated with consumption Rasera et al. In the Netherlands, all Cannabis -containing products must be labeled with a warning that they are not intended for consumption by children or minors Rasera et al. Cannabis is a versatile plant with many therapeutic uses. The current review has shown that it contains compounds with numerous therapeutic benefits, such as antioxidants, cytotoxic agents, and antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiarrheal, neuroprotective, and hepatoprotective properties. Cannabis sativa can be used in a variety of industries including biomedicine, agriculture, food, and cosmetics. These bioactivities are attributed to its phytoconstituents, including cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, and steroids, which highlight its potential as a source of medicinal agents. In addition to its medicinal uses, Cannabis has diverse applications in agriculture as fibre, food as a source of protein, fiber, and functional foods , and cosmetics as an active ingredient or oil. Although the available literature demonstrates the endless potential of Cannabis in these areas, more extensive research is needed to uncover the many unknown chemical substances with medical value. While empirical investigations of the plant have already been established, further studies should aim to identify and test these substances for their therapeutic benefits in treating various ailments. In addition, Cannabis sativa L. Studies have confirmed its toxicity to brain development and the nervous system, but its extensive traditional use presents challenges in controlling its impact. Policies are also needed to protect and utilize the benefits of Cannabis plants. Community engagement, planning, monitoring, evaluation, and implementation can all help in this effort. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that this study received funding from Beehigh Vital Elements Inc. Corner Brook, NL, Canada The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Front Pharmacol. Find articles by Eric Fordjour. Find articles by Charles F Manful. Find articles by Albert A Sey. Find articles by Rabia Javed. Find articles by Thu Huong Pham. Find articles by Raymond Thomas. Find articles by Mumtaz Cheema. Received Apr 5; Accepted May 30; Collection date Open in a new tab. Structure of other phytochemical classes found in the Cannabis plant. Hemp essential oils Methanol 0. Hemp fiber Acetone 5. Oil of seeds, whole plant extract Methanol Leaf extract Distilled water 5. A Gildea et al. Leaf extract Ethanol, hot water 9. Aqueous leaf extract Water mm Agar well diffusion assay antibacterial activity Romania Csakvari et al. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Gaoni and Mechoulam Karniol and Carlini DeLong et al. Seltzer et al. Crippa et al. Braemer and Paris ElSohly and Gul Ross and ElSohly ElSohly and Slade Hanus et al. Piccolella et al. Ahmed et al. Radwan et al. ElSohly et al. Odieka et al. Thomas , Van Os et al. Aizpurua-Olaizola et al. Showalter et al. Jagannathan Harvey et al. Wood et al. Iannotti et al. Carlini et al. Liktor-Busa et al. Tomko et al. Fischedick Sommano et al. Booth and Bohlmann Li et al. Pollastro et al. Wiles et al. Clark and Bohm Ryz et al. Ross et al. Iseppi et al. Cassano et al. Ali et al. Chouhan and Guleria Gildea et al. Naveed et al. Csakvari et al. Farha et al.

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