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Buying cocaine online in Rasht

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Abstracts from the 11th International Congress of Behavioral Medicine

Buying cocaine online in Rasht

Medpedia Podcast. Newsletter Abo-Shop. Springer Medizin. BMC Public Health. Abstract Background The world is experiencing an alarming increase in prevalence of childhood obesity. Despite this trend little is known about determinants of childhood obesity in Tanzania. A cross sectional study determined the prevalence and factors associated with overweight and obesity in children aged 7—14 years Methods Six public and four private schools were systemically selected from a total of primary schools. Anthropometric measurements weight and height were collected using a standard protocol and Body Mass Index BMI was calculated. Interviews collected demographic characteristics and lifestyle factors. Multiple logistic regression test was used to assess the influence of independent variables on overweight and obesity while controlling for confounding factors. Results Of 1, children Overweight and obesity was higher in boys Conclusions The findings of this study identified a number of behavioural and dietary factors that are related to overweight and obesity. Parents and teachers should encourage children to be physically active by limiting screen time and promoting active transport to and from school to promote health and reduce obesity. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. GL conceived the study, reviewed draft manuscript, TP reviewed draft manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Background The world is experiencing an alarming increase in prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity \[ 1 \]. The worldwide prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity increased dramatically from 4. Globally a total of 42 million children under the age of five were estimated to be overweight or obese in and 92 million were at risk of overweight. A high proportion of this burden 35 million children was borne by developing countries \[ 2 \]. The estimated prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity in Africa in was 8. This trend is expected to reach 9. Diets high in saturated fats, sugars and refined starch have also been shown to contribute to the increasing overweight and obesity among children and adults \[ 6 , 7 \]. However, there is limited information on the magnitude of overweight and obesity in Tanzania given the increase in urbanization, demographic and nutrition transition in the country, particularly in urban areas. In the current study we used the International Obesity Task Force IOTF cut off points for classifying children as overweight or obese to estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Tanzanian school children. The IOTF BMI classification was found to have excellent specificity and sensitivity for overweight cut off points when compared to United Kingdom data and body impedance measure of total fat \[ 17 \]. In addition, this method was developed using International data, thus allows international comparisons of overweight and obesity in children. Methods Study design, setting and population This was a Cross sectional study of children aged 7—14 years attending primary schools in Kinondoni District Council, Dar es Salaam. This study was conducted in Kinondoni municipality, which is among the three municipalities of Dar es Salaam city; the commercial capital of Tanzania and home for 4. A majority of the people in the urban part of the municipality engage in self-employment activities such as trading, fishing and small-scale manufacturing in the informal sector \[ 19 \]. Using systematic random sampling, six public and four private schools were selected from a total of primary schools of which were public and 90 were private. The sampling interval for both schools was A total of children were recruited from each of the sampled schools. Systematic random sampling was used to select classes that make up children and all children in a sampled class were included in the study. Data collection A structured questionnaire administered by trained research assistants was used to collect demographic characteristics and lifestyle factors diet and physical activity from all children whose parents gave consent and the children assented to participate in the study. The collected diet data included use of full sugar drinks, diet soft drinks, fruit juice, fried food, starch foods, fruits, vegetables, taking breakfast, time heaviest meal of the day taken, and dinner time. Also children were asked if they were given money to buy food at school, the amount of money given and type of food they buy, if they are given lunch at school, type of food given and if they carry lunch boxes to school. For each child weight in kilograms kg was collected using a digital weighing scale that was regularly calibrated to a known weight. Weight measurements were rounded to one decimal place. Two measurements were taken and the average was recorded. All measurements were done with children dressed in light clothing with no shoes Reference Stepwise methodology \[ 21 \]. All children with a projected BMI of below 25 at age 18 were categorized as normal weight or underweight \[ 17 \]. Permission was also sought from the District Executive Director and head teachers of schools that participated in the study. All children provided a verbal assent to participate. Statistical analysis Data was analysed using Epi Info software version 3. Continuous variables were summarized using means and standard deviations and categorical data using frequencies and percentages. Univariate analysis was done for demographic and lifestyle factors. Odds ratios were estimated to ascertain association between dependent variables overweight, obesity and key explanatory variables. Results A total of children aged 7—14 yeas Table 1 shows background characteristics of children who participated in the study and their Body Mass Index. Of children who participated, Among the girls 98 Overweight and obesity was more prevalent in children who attended private primary schools, Prevalence of overweight and obesity was higher among participants who had 1—3 siblings The prevalence of overweight and obesity was lower among children who reported usually walking to and from school, 9. Table 1 Background characteristics and body mass index of children. Children who reported using school bus or private cars were 4. Children who reported watching television were 1. Mean time spent watching television per week was almost the same for girls 7. Similarly mean time for age group 11—14 years 7. Computer use was reported by Mean time of using computers was 5. Mean time for girls was 5. Mean time for age group 11—14 years was 4. After adjusting for gender, age and school type, having 1—3 siblings, parents with secondary or post secondary education, using private cars or school bus to and from school, and using computers were found to be associated with increased risk of overweight and obesity as shown in Table 2. Walking to and from school was found to be protective against overweight and obesity. Table 2 Factors associated with child overweight or obesity. However among those given money, children who reported to be given T. The majority All four private schools that participated in the study provide lunch to their students while public schools do not provide lunch. Food provided to students is mostly starch Rice, Chips and protein Beef, beans in all the four private schools. Drinking fruit juice, eating fruits, eating fried food and eating starchy foods were not significant predictors of overweight and obesity as shown in Table 3. After adjusting for gender, age and school type; eating of breakfast before going to school, and being given money to buy food sold at school was found to be protective against overweight or obesity as shown in Table 3. Provision of lunch at school was found to be a risk factor for overweight or obesity. Discussion This study revealed that Our findings on prevalence of overweight However this study reported the prevalence of obesity for children in Kinondoni municipality to be Other factors include inadequate availability of pavements for pedestrians, paths for bicycling, and public playgrounds for children, which is a big problem for all major cities in Tanzania including Dar es Salaam. Our study identified several factors related to dietary and behaviour practices to be associated with overweight or obesity. For example, children who walked or used public transport to and from school were less likely to be overweight or obese than those who were driven by private cars or used school buses. Walking or using public transport to and from school is part of being physically active. Children who use public transport normally walk to and from bus stops, which are sometimes at a distance from their homes or schools. Children who are driven by private cars or use schools buses are picked up from home or at school bus stops very close to their homes. Overweight and obesity was also higher among respondents who spent long hours watching television, and playing computer and video games. Studies that examined sedentary habits in children have reported strong association between television watching and obesity \[ 5 , 7 , 8 \]. Studies that examined the relationship between the time spent on computers and obesity yielded contradictory findings. Children who carried lunch to school; those given lunch at school and those who drank light sugary drinks were likely to be overweight or obese. Children who bought food or drinks at school were less likely to be overweight compared to those who either brought own lunch or ate lunch from school. This could be explained by the fact that most of those who carried money to school were given just enough to buy few snacks and those who were given little amount of money were mostly from families with lower SES and attending public schools. Another possible explanation is that whatever food or drinks bought from school was counteracted by the effect of children being physically active including active mode of transport to and from school. The type of lunch provided coupled with sedentary lifestyle in most private school children could be a reason for the higher prevalence of overweight and obesity among these children. Our study also revealed that children who often ate breakfast before going to school were less likely to be overweight or obese. This finding confirms the findings of other studies which found that skipping breakfast was associated with obesity among children living in developed \[ 28 , 30 \] and developing \[ 31 , 32 \] countries. Surprisingly, eating fried and starchy foods were found to be associated with decreased risk of obesity. These findings were not anticipated, given that such dietary practices are expected to increase the risk of childhood obesity in developed countries \[ 28 \]. It is possible that children who are obese reduce their intake of unhealthy foods to cut down weight. Another possible explanation is that overweight or obese respondents may have underreported the types of food so as to paint a picture of consuming a healthy diet. Children with three or less siblings were at a greater risk of being overweight or obese than those with a higher number of siblings. Similar findings have been reported by another study conducted in Norway \[ 23 \]. Overweight and obesity was also higher in children who attended private schools compared to those who attended public schools. This could be attributed to the fact that children who attend private schools come from families with higher social economic status than those who go to public schools. Wealthier families can afford to take their children to school using private cars or school buses. They can also afford electronic recreational games such as computer and video games. There are a number of limitations of this study that need to be pointed out. An obvious limitation is its cross — sectional nature which precludes statements of cause and effect. This becomes especially limiting when interpreting associations that could have two legitimate pathways such as reverse association between obesity and walking to school. Walking to school may have a protective effect on development of obesity or it may simply be that obese children prefer to be driven to school. Also as we pointed out earlier some dietary practices did not give anticipated results. This could be due to the fact that overweight and obese children might be cutting down on unhealthy foods and eating more of health foods to lose weight. Thus findings need to be treated with caution. Another limitation is that puberty, ethnicity and genetic factors that could have an effect on obesity were not assessed. Given the wide age range of our sample it is likely that puberty and other mentioned factors played a role in the onset of overweight and obesity. In addition, though questions were designed to be age appropriate we cannot rule out the possibility of recall bias and difficulty in comprehending questions in younger children. To overcome this limitation some of the information provided by much younger children was validated against school records where applicable. Furthermore some younger children failed to answer some of the questions a fact that can have an effect on the measure of association calculated. Another limitation is that information on the amount of food usually consumed was not collected. Given that staple food for most families in Tanzania is starch rice, ugali-meal made from maize flour, bananas etc. Conclusion This study demonstrates that a significant proportion of primary school children in Kinondoni district are either overweight or obese. Factors related to overweight or obesity were lack of physical activity and unhealthy dietary practices at home and at school. It is therefore recommended that parents and teachers should encourage children to be physically active while at school and at home to reduce rates of obesity in children. AFENET is a Network of public health training institutions in Africa that seeks to strengthen manpower to enhance health systems on the continent. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Accessed 10 June World Health Organization. Global prevalence and trends of overweight and obesity among preschool children. Am J Clin Nutr. PubMed CrossRef. Sustained active transport is associated with a favourable body mass index trajectory across the early school years: findings from the Quebec Longitudinal study of child development birth cohort. Prev Med J. Ethinic differences in BMI among dutch adolescents: What is the role of screen viewing, active commuting to school, and consumption of soft drinks and high caloric snacks? Modifiable risk factors for overweight and obesity in children and adolescents from Sao Paulo, Brazil. Accessed 23 Dec Eating patterns, dietary quality and obesity. J Am Coll Nutr. Accessed 20 Oct Childhood obesity and food intake. World J Pediatr. Accessed 20 October, Television viewing, computer use, obesity and adiposity in US preschool children. Television watching, energy intake, and obesity in US children: results from the third National Health and Nutrition examination survey, — Arch Paediatr Adolesc Med. J Phys Act Health. Television, computer use and body mass index in Australia primary school children. J Paediatr Child Health. Television, computer use, physical activity, diet and fatness in Australian adolescents. Int J Paediatric Obes. Obesity, physical activity, computer use and TV viewing in Portuguese adolescents. Paediatric Exerc Sci. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among children aged 6—12 years in Dodoma and Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Tanzania: experiences from Kinondoni and Njombe districts. Accessed 7 Aug Kafyulilo A, Mafuniko FN. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide. Int Survey BMJ. Population distribution by age and sex. Accessed 14 Dec National Bureau of Statistics. Tanzania in figures Cluster sampling. Johns Hopkins University: School of hygiene and public health; Accessed 7 August, Ahmed S. Chronic diseases and health promotion- STEP wise approach to surveillance. Accessed on 24 August World health Organization. Obesity and overweight in South African primary school children — the Health of the Nation study. S Afr Med J. Overweight and obesity in Norwegian children: prevalence and socio demographic risk factors. Accessed 28 August Child overweight in France and its relationship with physical activity, sedentary behaviour and socioeconomic status. Eur J Clin Nutr. Accessed 02 Sept Risks and consequences of childhood obesity. Morbidity and mortality associated with elevated body weight in children and adolescents. PubMed Must A. Childhood obesity: a global public health crisis. Int J Prev Med. PubMed PubMedCentral. Risk factors for excess body fatness in New Zealand children. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. The worldwide obesity epidemic. J Obes Res. The relationship of breakfast skipping and type of breakfast consumption with nutrient intake and weight status in children and adolescents: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey — J Am Diet Assoc. Factors associated with overweight in children in Rasht, Iran: gender, maternal education, skipping breakfast and parental obesity. Public Health Nutr. Prevalence of obesity and overweight in adolescents from canary islands, Spain; relationship with breakfast and physical activity. Med Clin. Titel Why are primary school children overweight and obese? A cross sectional study undertaken in Kinondoni district, Dar-es-salaam. Mwaikambo Germana H. Publikationsdatum Verlag BioMed Central. Research article Exploring bi-directional and SMS messaging for communications between Public Health Agencies and their stakeholders: a qualitative study. Research article Consumption and drinking frequency of alcoholic beverage among women in Ghana: a cross-sectional study. Research article Contribution of chronic diseases to the disability burden in a population 15 years and older, Belgium, — Research article An interpretive study of food, snack and beverage advertisements in rural and urban El Salvador. Mode of transport to and from school: Walking. Mode of transport to and from school: Private cars and public transport. Usually eat breakfast before going to school. Mode of transport to and from school: Other modes of transport.

Buying cocaine online in Rasht