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The Kremlin brought back major war to Europe, something once thought to be banished from the continent. The international community saw for the first time a major power—not a marginal, rogue dictatorship—brandishing its nuclear weapons and threatening the annihilation of an entire continent. Yet Russia has largely shaken off the effects of these pressure tactics. Far from being isolated, it has emerged as an ever more aggressive actor. The Kremlin has shored up a web of relationships for a host of symbolic and practical purposes. Moscow has embraced rogue regimes like the ones in Iran and Myanmar and boosted its relationships with some of the closest and oldest U. Far from being deprioritized, competition with the West remains paramount, but good relations with the Global South have become necessary for the Kremlin to sustain that competition. Far from a comprehensive overview of Russian foreign policy since February 24, , this study offers a framework for analyzing and understanding it through the prism of the Diplomatic, Informational, Military, and Economic DIME model. Following an overview of earlier Russian attempts to regain global influence prior to February 24, , the paper examines the application of DIME by the Kremlin to enable its war against Ukraine. It then provides an assessment of the extent to which the Kremlin has been successful and concludes with implications for U. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in , Russia withdrew from the world stage, unable to sustain the vast global activities the Soviet Union had engaged in throughout the Cold War. Struggling under the weight of a succession of domestic political crises and sputtering attempts at economic reform, Russia was widely perceived as a has-been, a once mighty great power in protracted and possibly terminal decline. Its major international activity during the s consisted of appeals to major world capitals and international financial institutions for more aid. These predictions missed the mark. A few years later, buoyed by rising commodity prices and reaping the benefits of the painful economic reforms of the previous decade, Russia experienced an unprecedented period of economic revival along with domestic political consolidation and re-emergence on the world stage. A permanent member of the UNSC and now a full member of the G8, it began to reassert its great power ambitions. Thus, the Kremlin decided to form its own club of rising powers, to include Brazil, Russia, India, China, and subsequently South Africa. The BRICS was mostly dismissed as a grouping that was hardly capable of coherent, consequential action on the world stage because of the tense relationship between China and India, as well as the modest economic and military resources of the other members. The relationship with India was a continuation of the long-standing Soviet-era partnership and was hardly a match for the burgeoning ties between India and the United States. The partnership with China was also a continuation of the growing Russian-Chinese partnership, and one in which Beijing was perceived to have the upper hand. The latter factor was widely expected to prompt Russia eventually to rebalance its relationship with China to avoid becoming overly dependent on it. Aside from their shared opposition to perceived U. In sum, the BRICS was widely seen as a vanity project for Russia and at best a modestly useful tool in pursuit of the Russian vision of a multipolar world or a thinly disguised attempt to undermine U. Moreover, the s had left a deep and lasting imprint on Western perceptions of Russia. Its economy was thought to lack the requirements for sustained growth, let alone for supporting an ambitious foreign policy. Its increasingly authoritarian domestic politics was considered an inherently unstable anachronism. Its troops were sent to save the last remaining Russian client in the Middle East. The fact that the Syria deployment was conducted as a low-risk undertaking 15 was largely overlooked. And ground operations were conducted largely by mercenaries, making any losses of Russian military personnel deniable. The Syrian deployment came as a surprise to many. Russian moves often cannily took advantage of Western policy mistakes or lack of attention to and sustained engagement in crisis-prone regions. Russian operatives, unconstrained by ethical or legal considerations, were quick to act and capitalized on long-standing tribal, religious, or territorial disputes. In almost all such situations, Russian interventions appeared to be guided by the desire to put the spotlight on Western policy failures as well as to profit by gaining access to natural resources or selling the services of its security personnel. In virtually all these interventions, a major—at times the major—role belonged to Russian private security or mercenary groups. Whereas this occasionally gained notice in the West, as was the case with Russian outreach to the Chavez and later the Maduro regime in Venezuela, Moscow was still widely perceived as lacking the ability for sustained presence and impact, and as being more opportunistic than strategic. Russia intensified its outreach to the Global South after in an attempt to expand and shore up its web of relationships beyond the West as proof of its global reach and recognition, as well as to build a counterweight to the United States and its allies. However, its increased attempts at diplomatic, economic, and military engagement in the Global South, particularly in Africa and Latin America, produced few tangible results. However, with modest resources and lacking a clear ideological rationale other than to resist and wherever possible subvert the U. The annexation of Crimea and the start of the undeclared war in eastern Ukraine in had dealt a major blow to that relationship. Still, against mounting odds, there remained at least a theoretical hope that a negotiated solution could be found. To deal with this new situation, the Kremlin has deployed all instruments in its national power—diplomatic, informational, military, and economic. The breakdown of diplomacy and the dramatic deterioration of relations between Russia and the West to a level not seen since the Cold War forced Moscow to urgently seek new international partners. The diplomatic offensive spearheaded by the United States, the European Union, and their partners threatened Russia with far more dramatic international isolation and opprobrium than what it suffered after The ICC arrest warrant for Putin for alleged war crimes has added to the urgency of that effort as a matter of personal safety for the Russian leader. Yet, neither has put at risk its own interests to assist Russia in its hour of need. Modi had a highly publicized meeting with Putin on the margins of the September meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization SCO in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, at which he appeared to criticize the Russian leader for waging the war against Ukraine. Xi has maintained an even more robust personal engagement with Putin, hosting him in Beijing a few weeks before the start of the February offensive, visiting Moscow in March , and inviting him to visit Beijing later in Xi has used these meetings to demonstrate support for Putin in his struggle against their shared adversary the United States, but also to show that he has the upper hand in their relationship. China and India abstained from the February 25, , Security Council vote and the March 2, , General Assembly resolution calling on Russia to withdraw its forces from Ukraine immediately. Russian engagement with Brazil and South Africa has paid off too. In an effort to defuse it, South African officials reportedly have been encouraging the Russian leader not to visit and to participate in the summit remotely instead. However, this is not enough for the Kremlin, given its unrelenting ambition and need to remain a global actor. Thus, the UN General Assembly has also been an important diplomatic battlefield for Russia to gain or regain influence. Its efforts there have met with some success. Others, such as Iran or Nicaragua, have difficult relations with the United States and do not want to appear to follow its lead, while still others are reluctant for ideological or practical reasons to be drawn into what they see as a fight between big powers that has little to do with their own concerns. Lavrov has undertaken two extensive tours of the continent since February That legacy survives in some parts of Africa. Moreover, many African economies have suffered from high energy and food prices as a consequence of the Western sanctions on Russia as well as from interest rates hikes in major Western economies to combat inflation. Its courtship of China and India has worked despite its diminishing leverage with both countries. In parallel with and closely tied to its diplomatic campaign to prevent the West from isolating Russia in the international arena, the Kremlin has intensified its information and disinformation campaign. The task of debunking false Russian narratives has lost much of its meaning in this context, since the mere fact of news reporting—of Russian missile strikes against civilian targets in Ukraine, of Russian authorities kidnapping Ukrainian children and transporting them to Russia, or of Russian troops looting occupied villages—is the best antidote to them. Not even an ardent supporter of the Putin regime can deny the reality that it is Russian troops that occupy Ukrainian territory and not the other way around. Few if any Russian narratives have taken hold abroad since February In Europe, where disinformation could in theory prove most consequential if it were able to undercut public support for Ukraine, they appear to have had little impact. Russian disinformation appears to have had more effect in the Global South, thanks to a combination of large-scale government-sponsored propaganda, self-serving narratives, and homegrown factors. That framing has led to calls for the West to stop arming Ukraine, rather than for Russia to cease its attack and withdraw its forces. For more than a century, the Kremlin has viewed propaganda as an important tool of its foreign policy, and it continues to invest huge resources in this domain. The return on investment has been hardly overwhelming. While some countries in the Global South seem persuaded by Russian-friendly narratives and slanted news coverage, few if any of them have provided Moscow with tangible support that directly helps the war effort or fills Russian state coffers. Despite the evident lack of success in these realms, Russian disinformation and propaganda will continue as long as its confrontation with the West continues. So long as Europe and the United States fail to make headway on the issues of primary importance to countries in the Global South, it will be easy for Moscow to play on the legacies of the colonial and post-colonial eras and the Cold War. The most dramatic move by Russia in the military domain—besides unleashing an all-out war on Ukraine—has been its suspension of the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty New START with the United States, the last remaining bilateral arms-control treaty regulating the nuclear competition between Moscow and Washington. A Russian Iskander-M dual-capable missile system on display in September Photo by Sebastien Roblin. Russia also announced in March a plan to station tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus. The breakdown in relations with the West may well remove that ambiguity. Therefore, a U. Such steps could include selling intercontinental ballistic missiles to adversaries of the United States, an idea that has been floated by a prominent Russian defense analyst. Russia has long refused to recognize multilateral sanctions lacking UNSC approval, but it has also been ready to violate sanctions that do have UNSC approval, denying that it has done so and relying on its permanent seat on the UNSC to block any potential action against itself. Iran is fast becoming a beneficiary of the war. In an apparent quid pro quo, in exchange for supplying drones to Russia, Iran has negotiated the purchase of twenty-four Su Russian fighter jets. The appetite of Russian defense manufacturers to sell their wares abroad may be tempered by several factors: the priority of supplying the war effort, limited production capacity, the blow to the reputation of Russian arms—among some customers, perhaps—as a result of their less-than-stellar performance on the battlefield, the limited access to advanced technology that could impact the quality of Russian weapons, and the desire of some countries to gradually move away from reliance on Russian hardware and to avoid being sanctioned by the United States. The war against Ukraine will undoubtedly remain its top priority for the foreseeable future. But as its global posture since February makes abundantly clear, Russia is not ready to abandon its military forays in Africa, parts of Asia, and even in the Western Hemisphere. In pursuing its objectives, the Kremlin has relied on—in addition to arms sales—military-to-military engagements, naval deployments, basing arrangements, and private military contractors acting as proxies for the Kremlin. It has enabled Russia to position itself as the alternative to the United States and its allies and their practice of offering a helping hand but with strings—good governance, human rights, etc. Wagner came to prominence in the beginning of the war against Ukraine in Since then, it has grown in size and importance, becoming a major tool of Russian military and foreign policy. Since then, Wagner has seemed ubiquitous. On the economic front, the West has imposed unprecedented multilateral sanctions on Russia and mobilized support for Ukraine. The resulting situation has been striking for two reasons: the severity of the sanctions and the economic calamity for Russia they threaten, but also the resilience of the Russian economy in the face of these supposedly devastating blows, which has contradicted the many dire forecasts. Russia has turned out to be highly consequential for the global economy, especially in the non-Western world, where the shock from market disruptions caused by the sanctions was felt particularly acutely coming on the heels of the coronavirus pandemic. China and India have ramped up their purchases of Russian hydrocarbons, dramatically so in the case of the latter. Its relationship with the West is broken and likely to remain so for as long as Putin is in power, and probably longer. Long-standing partnerships and engagement in the Global South, often dismissed as largely inconsequential and irrelevant to both sides, have paid off, enabling Russia to soften the blow of international condemnation and to blunt the effects of Western economic sanctions. These lessons will undoubtedly be studied and applied by the Kremlin. At the same time, the risk of this outcome has increased—the almost certain demise of the Russian-U. The loss of the guardrails means that Russia is likely to assume an even more confrontational posture toward the West. Declared a renegade by the United States and its allies, Russia is poised to become a global disruptor, a rogue power. The author is grateful to Christopher Bort, Eric Ciaramella, and Andrew Weiss for their comments on an earlier version of this study. Thanks also to Jasmine Alexander-Greene and Sean Eriksen for their exceptionally helpful research assistance. The author is solely responsible for any remaining errors of fact or judgment.

A Pausanias Reader in progress: Description of Greece, Scrolls 1–10

Buying blow Karystos

This chapter turns to the question of distribution, looking at the factors that determined where particular stones were used, what they were used for and why. Stone is valued according to the use to which it is to be put and so different materials are sought out for different projects. Focusing on the use to which stones are put, discussion focuses on the distribution of stones used for building in five areas—Asia Minor, the Levant, Spain, Gaul, the Rhineland, and Britain—and in each considers the impact that geography or supply systems had on the employment of particular materials. Sarcophagi and statuary were used and bought differently from raw materials for building and their distribution patterns are consequently divergent. Finally, imperial redistribution of decorative stone operated on a quite different scale from ordinary, everyday stone use and the mechanisms underpinning this operation are the focus of the last section of this chapter, as is the relationship between the imperial and non-imperial stone trade. Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:. Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account. Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian. Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. 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Military Life and Institutions. Naval Forces and Warfare. Other Warfare and Defence Issues. Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. Weapons and Equipment. Browse all content Browse content in. Advanced Search. Search Menu. Published online:. Published in print:. Search in this book. Expand Front Matter. Copyright Page. List of Figures. List of Tables. List of Abbreviations. Note to the Reader. Collapse 5 Distribution Patterns. Expand Modelling distribution Modelling distribution. Layers of economic activity Layers of economic activity. The consumer and the selection of stone The consumer and the selection of stone. Expand Distribution of stone in architectural contexts Distribution of stone in architectural contexts. Case study 2: the Levant Case study 2: the Levant. Case study 3: Spain Case study 3: Spain. Case study 4: Gaul Case study 4: Gaul. The impact of geography The impact of geography. Building contractors and the selection of stone Building contractors and the selection of stone. Expand Sarcophagus distribution and materials for statuary Sarcophagus distribution and materials for statuary. Sarcophagus distribution in the East Sarcophagus distribution in the East. Sarcophagus distribution in the West Sarcophagus distribution in the West. Materials for statuary Materials for statuary. Expand Imperial redistribution Imperial redistribution. Imperial projects at Rome Imperial projects at Rome. Imperial projects outside of Rome Imperial projects outside of Rome. The imperial transport system The imperial transport system. The nature of imperial intervention The nature of imperial intervention. Imperial stones on the non-imperial market Imperial stones on the non-imperial market. Imperial gifts Imperial gifts. Conclusions Conclusions. Expand End Matter. Ben Russell Ben Russell. Oxford Academic. Google Scholar. Annotate Cite Icon Cite. Permissions Icon Permissions. 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Buying blow Karystos