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The Nordic countries are often thought of in terms of social democratic welfare regimes with numerous shared cultural aspects. Based on research from Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, this chapter explores how historical developments, specific ways of constructing policies, and welfare institutions articulate specific conceptions of what drug-related issues are and how they should be managed in three seemingly very similar welfare states. The Nordic welfare states are often described as quite alike and fairly open and inclusive in their approach to welfare policies and concerns, but the chapter demonstrates that similar political systems adopt different policy responses to similar conditions. To explore the similarities and differences, we are inspired by the analytical concepts of policy space and political rationalities; we use this approach to provide an overview of drug policy history in the three countries and present a closer examination of the topics of sanctions against drug users, coercive treatment, and substitution treatment nationally as well as cross-nationally. Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:. Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account. Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian. 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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Against a backdrop of an overall decline in the injecting of illicit drugs in Europe, recent reports of the injection of new psychoactive substances NPS , in particular synthetic cathinones, have emerged as a worrying new trend. Synthetic cathinones first appeared on the European illicit drug market in These substances have effects similar to known stimulant drugs and are structurally related to cathinone, which is found in the Khat plant Catha edulis. Many synthetic cathinones have, for varying periods of time, been legally available in European countries, often sold through physical retail outlets or via websites. Ease of availability coupled with relatively low prices and high purity compared to street drugs, and popularisation via Internet-driven social media, are likely to have contributed to current levels of use. Developing a clear understanding of patterns and levels of use of synthetic cathinones in Europe remains a challenge. As it is a relatively new phenomenon, existing monitoring systems are not geared towards it, no agreed analytic laboratory standards exist, and users are seldom aware of precisely which substance or combination of substances they have used. Furthermore purchasing on the Internet enables users to remain discreet and thus a much hidden population. Important insights have been collected for this analysis, however, from a limited number of national and targeted surveys, data presented in Reitox national reports and the scientific literature. However, there are other groups where higher prevalence levels of synthetic cathinone use are reported, such as clubbers, high-risk drug users and treatment entrants. While most cathinone use involves either snorting the drugs as a powder or oral use, a recent worrying phenomenon has emerged of synthetic cathinones being injected by some groups of drug users. On the whole, reports suggest that injecting cathinone users are primarily injectors of other drugs heroin, amphetamines who, for a variety of reasons, switch to cathinone injection or include cathinones in their drug-using repertoire. In some European countries, the injection of synthetic cathinones is reported to be a relatively low-level and localised phenomenon, restricted to particular groups of high-risk drug users Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Ireland, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom. In Hungary and Romania, however, a more substantial level of use of synthetic cathinones injection has been identified among large cohorts of high-risk drug users. After almost pushing heroin out of the market, synthetic cathinones also began to displace amphetamines. It is interesting to note that the cathinone of choice changed over time in a way that appears to be directly linked with availability — when one cathinone was controlled, it was quickly replaced by a cathinone that was not controlled see figure. Source: Hungarian national focal point, Other indicators e. More localised outbreaks of cathinones injection have been identified in several countries, typically involving high-risk drug users in contact with low-threshold facilities, psychiatric facilities, and drug treatment centres. In total, 3 syringes were collected from 17 sites in Paris where syringe retrieval devices are located. The appearance of this cathinone and its growing presence in the syringes was observed between summer and winter , mainly at sites where cocaine was the most previously injected drugs. A study of Irish prisoners showed that this population reported injecting cathinones. In addition, several in-depth qualitative studies that confirm the presence of mephedrone injection have been conducted in Dublin e. Van Hout and Bingham, The reported frequency of use was relatively intensive among this group, with 50 doses of the drug per week on average, and a third of respondents reporting that mephedrone was the drug causing them the most problems. Both older polydrug users and younger users without previous opioid experience were represented among these users Austrian Reitox national focal point, At present, mephedrone appears to be declining in Austria Austrian Reitox national focal point, Mephedrone injection has also been reported in the United Kingdom, based on law enforcement reports Chadd, , lthough the evidence of increased mephedrone injection in the study location South Wales was mainly anecdotal. In addition, the national Druglink Street Drug Trends survey in the UK reported on mephedrone users who were experiencing multiple harms and making contact with drug services. These included both experienced users of other drugs switching to mephedrone, and novice users who have never injected other drugs before. Mephedrone users were reportedly younger than other groups of high-risk drug users seen by drug services. A recent survey among Spanish harm reduction centre clients in Barcelona highlighted the injecting use of the synthetic cathinone 4-MEC among this population. A similar study at city level was carried out in Finland in the Helsinki area. There is additional limited data on the use of cathinones or more generally of NPS by people who inject drugs, but where the route of administration is non-specified or unknown. Parties can last from around eight hours up to three days Spire et al. Consequently, this form of use is associated with a highly elevated risk of the spread of blood-borne and sexually transmitted diseases. To date in Europe, this new practice has primarily been documented among restricted sub-groups of gay men mainly in London and a small, but increasing number of French cities Lahaie et al. This analysis has documented emerging evidence of new patterns of synthetic cathinone injection amongst subpopulations of drug users in Europe. There is concern about the addictive potential of these drugs and associated physical and mental health harms experienced by users see Health consequences , and about the high-risk behaviours associated with injection of these substances. While at present there are no specific interventions targeted at synthetic cathinones users, given that, for several researched synthetic cathinones, there appear to be similar mechanisms of action, effects and harms as for amphetamines, interventions with evidence of effectiveness for these drugs may prove useful EMCDDA, Bearing in mind the serious potential impact of new patterns of injection being identified, the close monitoring of synthetic cathinones use in Europe is clearly an important public health priority. Synthetic cathinones are related to the parent compound cathinone, one of the naturally occurring psychoactive substances found in the khat plant Catha edulis Forsk. The core molecular structure of synthetic cathinones derivatives is cathinone 2-aminophenylpropanone or 2-aminopropiophenone. The possible substitution patterns of the synthetic cathinones, known as 'substitutions', occur when any of the hydrogen atoms attached to the phenyl ring, the alpha-carbon of the side chain or the nitrogen atom are replaced with other substituents or functional groups. Using this interactive tool you can select different combinations of substituents and build up to 60 molecules to find out more about the synthetic cathinones that are being monitored by the EU Early Warning System. It is the cathinone beta-keto derivative of the ring-substituted phenethylamine 2C-B. Metamfepramone is a drug related to cathinone and methcathinone. Chemically, it is the N-ethyl homologue of cathinone and dimethylcathinone. Mephedrone is a synthetic ring-substituted cathinone closely related to the phenethylamine family, differing only by a keto functional group at the beta carbon. The substance was found during an analysis in August It has been reported to have enhanced potency at serotonin uptake transporters. In addition, it has been reported that phenyl ring substitution can shift the psychopharmacological profile of aminopropiophenones from stimulant activity to antidepressant activity. It is a positional isomer of mephedrone, differing only in the position of the methyl group on the phenyl ring. The substance was found during an analysis of a powder purchased in August No additional information on this synthetic cathinone is currently available. We are in the process of updating our information base and this should be available shortly. The substance occurred in July in incoming mail from Shanghai. The substance was found during an analysis of a powder collected in August The substance was found during an analysis of a powder collected in April This substance is a synthetic cathinone derivative, and is the N-benzyl derivative of the known substance 4-methyl-buphedrone aka 4-Me-MABP. This substance is structurally related to pentedrone 2-methylaminophenylpentanone by being substituted in the ring with a methyl group at the para-position as well as being N-ethylated, rather than N-methylated. The substance was found during an analysis in October The substance was found during an analysis of tablets purchased online. This substance is a ring-substituted synthetic cathinone derivative, which is the N-propyl homologue of butylone. The substance was found in May in a postal package from China. It also shares similarities with MPHP, its ring-methylated derivative. Hexedrone is a synthetic cathinone and the higher homologue which continues the series established by buphedrone and pentedrone. It is structurally related to pentedrone 2-methylaminophenylpentanone by being substituted in the ring with a fluorine atom at the para-position as well as being N-isoproylated, rather than N-methylated. It is substituted at the meta-position on the phenyl ring with a methoxy group. It is a positional isomer of methedrone 4-methoxymethcathinone and the beta-keto analogue of the phenthylamine stimulant O-MMA. Synthetic cathinones have been linked to a range of health problems for users Miotto et al. The drugs toxicity at high doses, which is similar to that of cocaine, MDMA and amphetamine Dargan and Wood, , has resulted in emergency room presentations across Europe; deaths involving synthetic cathinones do occur Wood and Dargan, ; Corkery et al. Injecting cathinone use has been associated with a high frequency of injection for several of the substances, with European injectors of synthetic cathinones reporting a number of injection-related and other complications. These include an intense burning sensation at the injection site, with repetitive injection resulting in skin erosion, localised infections, blisters, spots, abscesses, gangrenous tissue, blood clots, permanent numbness and spasms. In addition, some problems associated with synthetic cathinone injection and the spread of infectious diseases have been highlighted. In Hungary, possible increases in HCV infection were observed in synthetic cathinone injectors and associated with high frequency of injection for some cathinones In Romania the high frequency of injecting these drugs 6—8 times per day according to local studies , coupled with a reduction in the availability of sterile injecting equipment, are cited as factors playing a role in recent HIV outbreaks Botescu et al. In addition to injection-related risks, cathinones use has also been associated with risky sexual practices Van Hout and Brennan, a; Stuart, ; Spire et al. Compulsive use and dependence symptoms have been reported by synthetic cathinone users. These include strong cravings, relatively rapid development of tolerance and prolonged binges, sometimes lasting for many days. The compulsive nature of use might stem from the fact that the effects of several of these drugs are in general short-lived, with a maximum of 2—4 hours at oral administration Corkery et al. A study of psychiatric inpatient facilities in Germany Livak et al. Psychotic states following mephedrone use often persisted for several days despite the administration of neuroleptic medication. Most of these cases were polydrug users who had often used injection as a route of administration for cathinones. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. Breadcrumb Home Topics Injection of synthetic cathinones. Perspectives on drugs: injection of synthetic cathinones Introduction Analysis Interactive Facts and figures Health consequences Find out more. Update date : PDF version. Analysis: injection of synthetic cathinones. Daly, M. Van Hout, M. Chadd, A. Tammi, T. Czech national focal point, personal communication, Lindeman, E. Bourne, A. Spire, B. Stuart, D. Batisse, A. Lahaie, E. Loading interactive feature… please wait. Synthetic cathinone Metamfepramone Metamfepramone is a drug related to cathinone and methcathinone. Synthetic cathinone Mephedrone Mephedrone is a synthetic ring-substituted cathinone closely related to the phenethylamine family, differing only by a keto functional group at the beta carbon. Synthetic cathinone Buphedrone Buphedrone is a structural isomer of mephedrone. It was first synthesized in by Hyde et al. Synthetic cathinone xxx No additional information on this synthetic cathinone is currently available. Synthetic cathinone 4-methylbuphedrone, N-benzyl derivative This substance is a synthetic cathinone derivative, and is the N-benzyl derivative of the known substance 4-methyl-buphedrone aka 4-Me-MABP. Synthetic cathinone 4-Methyl-N-ethylnorpentedrone This substance is structurally related to pentedrone 2-methylaminophenylpentanone by being substituted in the ring with a methyl group at the para-position as well as being N-ethylated, rather than N-methylated. Synthetic cathinone bk-PBDB This substance is a ring-substituted synthetic cathinone derivative, which is the N-propyl homologue of butylone. Synthetic cathinone Eutylone Eutylone is a substituted cathinone which is a higher homologue of butylone and ethylone. Synthetic cathinone 4-fluoro-N-isopropylnorpentedrone 4-fluoro-N-isopropylnorpentedrone is a synthetic ring-substituted cathinone derivative. Synthetic cathinone 3-methoxymethcathinone 3-methoxymethcathinone is a synthetic ring-substituted derivative of methcathinone. Sorry… No additional information on this synthetic cathinone is currently available. Synthetic cathinones encompass a wide group of substances that are synthetic derivatives of cathinone, which is naturally present in the Khat Catha edulis plant. Synthetic cathinones mainly appear on the drug markets as powders and tablets. Between and more than 81 synthetic cathinone derivatives were reported to the EU Early Warning System see Interactive: demystifying the chemistry. Methcathinone was first developed in the s as an antidepressant. Since then it has been used illicitly in the former Soviet Union countries and Poland 4. In Israel, the use of khat-extracted cathinones spread in the early s. These substances were banned in ; further derivatives were banned in Synthetic cathinones were first seized in Europe in methylone in the Netherlands. In mephedrone was submitted to control measures in the European Union. Footnotes 4 Bretteville-Jensen et al. References Bretteville-Jensen, A. References Miotto, K. Dargan, P. Wood, D. Corkery, J. Horvath, G. Botescu, A. Livak, V. Szily, E.

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