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Buying Heroin Patras

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Will growth in cryptomarket drug buying increase the harms of illicit drugs?

Buying Heroin Patras

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Policy responses so far are based generally on the assumption that their rise will only increase drug harms. In this contribution for debate, we question this assumption. We provide a narrative review of the emerging literature connected to drug cryptomarkets. It is likely that cryptomarkets will increase both the amount and the range of substances that are sold. There is an emerging and rapidly growing evidence base connected to the macro and micro harms and benefits of cryptomarkets for drug users. Keywords: Cryptomarkets, darknet, drug dealing, drug harms, drug prices, drug quality, harm reduction, illegal drug use, risk reduction, risk taking. The cryptomarket drug trade is a growing area of interest for criminologists 2 , 3 , public health researchers 4 , 5 , drug policy analysts 6 and for law enforcement and policymakers 7 , 8. Cryptomarkets offer a new channel for global drug diffusion 9. While the proportion of drug users who report cryptomarket buying is currently small, research evidence using multiple methodologies points to an increase 10 , We also consider population level effects, including prevalence and intensity of drug use. We alert readers to a growing research literature on cryptomarkets, and set out a number of questions we urge researchers to address in order to provide the evidence needed to inform policy and promote public health. Cryptomarket vendors will have only limited capacity to control the quality of substances they sell. Many cryptomarket vendors specify clearly the quality and purity of their products; some even provide chemical test results ostensibly backing up their claims 3. Buyers dissatisfied with product quality have recourse by leaving negative feedback Research evidence is emerging in support of this possibility. Interviews with cryptomarket customers highlight product quality as a key reason for accessing drugs in this way 22 , 23 , User satisfaction, however, is at best a weak indicator of product quality Testing the content and purity of drugs provides a more robust benchmark. Two comparative studies using this methodology have been published to date. Misreporting of substance purity by cryptomarket vendors was identified by Swiss researchers, who bought and tested four samples. While tested content matched advertised content, test results confirmed lower purity than vendors advertised Buyers can compare prices among vendors and vendors can set prices informed by unprecedented knowledge of their local and international competitors High prices for illicit goods also partly reflect the compensation that suppliers seek for bearing these risks Secondly, parcel loss or interception by borders officials are understood by vendors as costs of doing business Three studies provide comparative evidence on price. The DIMS study discussed above additionally asked users submitting samples for testing to report the price paid for the drug. The other studies employed a different methodology. Drug prices extracted from cryptomarket listings were compared to street drug prices listed in official sources. Cryptomarket prices were mainly higher than street drug prices in 10 countries Although these studies do not uniformly support the hypothesis that cryptomarket regulatory mechanisms might function to reduce drug prices, the question remains open for two reasons. By comparison, cryptomarket deals may be at or above the advertised weight, given the system incentives described above in relation to drug quality. They may be cheated: sold a product of which the quality or quantity is not as advertised The virtual location of drug cryptomarkets, combined with anonymity provided by hidden web location and use of cryptocurrencies for payment, should function to reduce possibilities for violent confrontation 3 , 9. Cryptomarket buyers reported fewer threats to personal safety and violence than reported in connection to sourcing through known dealers, strangers and even friends. Cryptomarket buyers, however, are not immune to this risk. Even if law enforcement prioritizes the apprehension of drug suppliers over users, it may be easier to trace cryptomarket shipments to their intended recipients than to the sellers shipping them. There are limits on the extent to which cryptomarkets may reduce drug market violence. Violence related to the control of production, smuggling and wholesale supply may be relatively unaffected by cryptomarkets, as long as these activities remain illegal and highly profitable. However, it seems likely that strategies other than violence for the resolution of transactional conflict are likely to predominate in cryptomarkets. More research is required to tease out the comparative configuration of risks of scams, violence and arrest across drug market types. Less common are substances associated typically with problem drug use, such as heroin and methamphetamine 2 , 53 , 54 , Cryptomarkets are likely, therefore, to provide a new mechanism for the diffusion of specific drugs into new locales in which they were previously unavailable 9. Cryptomarkets may therefore increase the population prevalence of the use of particular drugs by widening the repertoires of those who are already drug users. Secondly, cryptomarkets may make available drugs to those who would not otherwise have accessed them through traditional markets, thereby increasing the population prevalence of drug users. A critical question, then, is whether cryptomarkets simply replace conventional trade or supplement it by bringing in new buyers There is also a third, indirect, route. If the examples of tobacco and alcohol are relevant to other psychoactive substances, then we would expect increased availability and reduced prices to lead to increased prevalence of use 57 , 58 , 59 , The majority of drug users access drugs from friends, colleagues, neighbours or family members Therefore, it may seem unlikely that lack of access to illicit markets is a major barrier for people who would like to use drugs but have abstained from doing so. Cryptomarket buying requires technological resources and skill, and purchases made days in advance of intended consumption. Cryptomarkets may therefore not be a direct source of supply for many people with the most problematic patterns of drug use. Total harm will not depend simply upon the prevalence of use, but also on the intensity of use and harms per unit of use. There may be feedback effects between each element of this equation; increased perceptions of harmfulness per unit of use may reduce population prevalence; and the greater sharing of information between users that cryptomarkets enable may speed up such dynamics. They obviously exist, otherwise drug use would be far more rare than it is. People use drugs for a variety of reasons, most of which are volitional rather than dependent 67 , Users may derive pleasure, enhanced capacities for work and study, social bonds with other drug users and a variety of other benefits 69 , 70 , 71 , If cryptomarket customers are indeed more likely to receive the drug they expected to purchase, they should be less likely to experience unwanted or unexpected effects, and in turn the harms associated with those effects. However, many people who take drugs would see increases in quality as beneficial, particularly when coupled with reductions in price and transactional risk. Cryptomarkets may also provide benefits to drug takers through the provision of harm reduction information. The internet has massively expanded access to information about illegal drugs. Drug cryptomarkets go a step further. As with cryptomarkets themselves, there are mechanisms through which engagement with discussion forums may affect both benefits and harms. The results of research on the effects on harm per unit of use will need to be combined in models with findings on the prevalence of use and its intensity if we are to generate a more accurate picture of the harms and benefits that arise from cryptomarket drug sales. We have examined the complex effects of cryptomarkets on drug quality, price and transactional risk, allowing us to consider the consequences on range and prevalence of use and on associated harms and benefits. Due to the limitations of currently available research, these considerations are proposed not as a list of predictions, but as suggestions to stimulate both debate and further research on the effects of cryptomarkets. These effects will be hard to discern at the population level while the market share of cryptomarkets remains small. Not all forms of illicit drug trading are equally harmful 87 , The extent and nature of these harms and benefits will, importantly, also be affected by policy responses. In deciding on these or other forms of intervention, policy makers will need to consider carefully how drug markets will innovate in response 35 and pay particular attention to potential unintended consequences. We thank Michala Kowalski for her assistance with literature updates. The contents of this paper are solely the responsibility of the individual authors and do not reflect the views of any funders mentioned above. Aldridge, J. Addiction, — As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Will growth in cryptomarket drug buying increase the harms of illicit drugs? Find articles by Judith Aldridge. Find articles by Alex Stevens. Find articles by Monica J Barratt. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Buying Heroin Patras