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This synthetic cathinone is classified as a forbidden substance in Poland. This substance takes mainly the form of powder and crystals 5. Witnesses called an ambulance, but after a resuscitative action, the doctor declared the man dead. The man was addicted to drugs. The autopsy revealed cerebral edema and congestion, subconjunctival and subpleural petechial hemorrhages, pulmonary edema and congestion, low-grade atherosclerosis, liver enlargement, traces of rescue operations, fluidity and stagnation of blood in internal organs. The histological examination showed high-grade cerebral edema, brainstem edema, cerebellar edema and hyperemia, diffuse cardiac scarring, recent ischemic foci of myocardial fibers, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, focal pulmonary edema and hyperemia, nodular goiter, hyperemia and chronic interstitial nephritis, chronic non-specific portal space inflammation in the liver, splenic congestion, pancreatic autolysis and fibrosis, increased congestion and colitis, erosive hemorrhagic gastritis and adrenal congestion. For toxicological analysis, samples of blood collected from the heart, femoral vein and dural venous sinuses , vitreous humor, cerebrospinal fluid, cerebral cortex, brainstem, cerebellum, bile, liver, kidney, heart, pancreas, spleen, thyroid, lung, adipose tissue, stomach and intestine were collected during the autopsy. Mephedrone-d 3 at a concentration of 0. All the remaining reagents used in the analyses were of high purity grade high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC and mass spectrometry grade. Together with the analyzed samples, calibration samples were prepared. Calibration samples were obtained through the addition of the appropriate volumes of the working solutions to 0. The liquid—liquid extraction procedure was used to prepare biological samples. Then, to each sample, 2. The dry residues were dissolved in 0. The extraction procedure was the same as described earlier. This diluted sample extract was transferred to the glass insert and vial and then analyzed using gas chromatography—mass spectrometry GC—MS. The mobile phase was composed of Solvent A 0. The flow rate was 0. Samples were ionized in the ESI mode with positive ionization. Tandem MS conditions are presented in Table I. The obtained mass spectra in the positive electron impact ionization EI mode were compared with the spectra from the Cayman Chemical EI mass spectra library Cayman Chemical. The results obtained were processed with the use of the Xcalibur v. This transformation is a well-known feature of the cathinones. We expected a similar instrument response for drug and metabolite because of the similar chemical structure of both compounds. However, this is a significant limitation of this study, so the metabolite concentrations should be interpreted cautiously. Lidocaine was also detected in some materials. The analyses did not reveal any alcohol, classic drugs and other NPSs. New redistribution assessment coefficients are being sought. In previously published studies, the distribution of other cathinone derivatives in vitreous humor relative to the blood has been highly variable The parent drug-to-metabolite ratio has been calculated for all the fluids and tissues. However, the concentrations in the liver were significantly higher than in the adipose tissue. The detection of relevant metabolites in addition to the parent drug may be useful for other researchers and scientists working in the field of clinical and forensic toxicology. The presented case also shows that the evaluation of toxicological results along with histopathological alterations and circumstantial information is fundamental in determining the correct cause of death. Supplementary data are available at Journal of Analytical Toxicology online. This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. Polish Sanitary Inspector Warning. Adamowicz P. Legal Medicine , 42 , Google Scholar. Zawadzki M. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine , 85 , Kemenes K. Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 47 , — Matsuta S. Forensic Toxicology , 36 , — Paul M. Journal of Mass Spectrometry , 50 , — McIntyre I. Forensic Sciences Research , 1 , 33 — Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 27 , — Glicksberg L. Simmler L. British Journal of Pharmacology , , — Fujita Y. Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 42 , e1 — e5. Zaitsu K. Forensic Toxicology , 32 , 1 — 8. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Sign In or Create an Account. Sign in through your institution. Advanced Search. Search Menu. Article Navigation. Close mobile search navigation Article Navigation. Volume Article Contents Abstract. Case History. Supplementary data. Data availability. Ethical approval. Author contributions. Journal Article. Paulina Wachholz , Paulina Wachholz. Email: d Oxford Academic. Toxicology Laboratory ToxLab. Natalia Pawlas. Revision received:. Editorial decision:. Corrected and typeset:. Select Format Select format. Permissions Icon Permissions. Table I. Open in new tab. Retention time min. Collision energy v. Figure 1. Open in new tab Download slide. Figure 2. Table II. Femoral blood 2, Figure 3. Google Scholar Crossref. Search ADS. Published by Oxford University Press. Issue Section:. Download all slides. Views 3, More metrics information. Total Views 3, Email alerts Article activity alert. Advance article alerts. New issue alert. Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic. Citing articles via Web of Science 3. The rise of bromazolam in postmortem cases from Travis County, TX, and surrounding areas: to More from Oxford Academic. Biological Sciences. Clinical Medicine. Medical Toxicology. Medicine and Health. Science and Mathematics. Toxicology Non-medical. Authoring Open access Purchasing Institutional account management Rights and permissions. Get help with access Accessibility Contact us Advertising Media enquiries.

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Buying Heroin Katowice

These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Key findings and threat assessment. Global context. Production in Europe. Trafficking and supply. Criminal networks. Prices and purities. Retail markets. Effects, risks and harms of use. Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. At the global level, Europe is a key producer of amphetamine, with most of it manufactured in the Netherlands and neighbouring countries in illicit laboratories where other synthetic drugs may also be produced. Synthetic drug producers in the Netherlands are believed to control much of the production taking place in Belgium, with laboratories often found close to the border with the Netherlands, and more recently near the Belgian-French border. Production facilities for synthetic drugs — including amphetamine — are often set up in remote regions on farms or in warehouses, where the risks of detection are relatively low. In addition, there are indications that Dutch criminal networks have expanded production activities to Germany and potentially to other EU countries. Information collected during the dismantling of illicit laboratories by law enforcement and precursor seizure data show that the Leuckart method, which requires BMK and formamide, is the most commonly used means to produce amphetamine in Europe. BMK may itself be imported, but the BMK used is typically produced in Europe from alternative chemicals that are trafficked from abroad, typically China. These substances appear on the market, only to be replaced by alternatives when authorities put controls in place to restrict their use. The Leuckart method is relatively straightforward, yet somewhat low yielding and reliant on a number of controlled chemicals. The amphetamine consumed in the EU is believed to be exclusively produced in the EU, with production concentrated in the Netherlands and Belgium. In some cases, the manufacturing of the consumer product is not completed in these countries and the amphetamine base oil is exported to another country, where it is converted into amphetamine sulfate salt. A much smaller proportion of the amphetamine produced in the EU is used to make captagon tablets, which are then exported to the main consumer markets in the Arabian Peninsula see Box Amphetamine as captagon tablets. Like most synthetic drugs, amphetamine can be produced by multiple methods, depending on the available chemicals and equipment, reaction conditions and, to some extent, the skills of the producer. Importantly, many of these methods are versatile enough to yield a variety of drugs, with only small changes needed to the chemicals and equipment used. This is the case for the Leuckart method, a standard organic chemistry method that can be used in the synthesis of amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA, as well as a number of other chemical products. To avoid the legal controls placed on BMK, the production of amphetamine often starts with the conversion of commercially available chemicals into BMK. A number of illicit laboratories specialise in this process. The process comprises five main steps, with an additional, optional, first step being the production of BMK from alternative chemicals see Figure Simplified general schema of amphetamine production :. Although there is no systematic collection of data in this area, the available information suggests that BMK and alternative chemicals for amphetamine production are mostly sourced in China, whereas solvents and other essential chemicals acids, bases, solvents may be obtained directly in EU countries. The sourced chemicals are often transported to the main production countries of the Netherlands and Belgium by road via transit countries. Between and , sites related to illicit amphetamine production were dismantled in the EU. Among these were production sites, chemical or equipment storage facilities and waste dump sites. Of these sites, were dismantled in in Belgium 6 , Bulgaria 4 , Germany 35 , Estonia 1 , the Netherlands 38 , Poland 25 , Spain 4 and Sweden 1. The totals for Germany and Poland include a number of laboratories where amphetamine oil was processed into amphetamine sulfate 28 and 15 sites respectively. Out of the sites dismantled in , 44 were operational compared to 72 in , and were detected in Germany 4 , the Netherlands 32 , Poland 3 , Spain 4 and Sweden 1 see Figures Number of amphetamine production sites dismantled in the EU, and Location of sites related to amphetamine production in the EU, The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. According to the available data, the Netherlands is a notable hub for synthetic drug production in the EU, with Dutch law enforcement data revealing that a total of synthetic drug production sites were detected between and Combination laboratories, where at least two different types of synthetic drugs are manufactured, were less frequently found, but 25 such sites were discovered that involved amphetamine. Combined production of amphetamine or MDMA with methamphetamine was found to have increased over this period, while combined production of amphetamine and MDMA decreased National Police of the Netherlands, Amphetamine laboratories are often situated in rural or residential areas, on farms, in private houses, in industrial parks or in remote industrial premises. Criminal networks engaging in this business are adaptable and take measures to reduce the risks of, and any losses resulting from, detection. Such measures include setting up laboratories that can be quickly dismantled when they are no longer needed or become unsafe, as well as using separate locations for different stages of the production process. Equipment that can be reused may be removed when a laboratory is dismantled by the criminal networks, and waste is often left behind. Europe has historically been the source of amphetamine and other synthetic drugs for the United Kingdom UK drug market, however, evidence of large-scale amphetamine production in the UK has emerged since This may be partly explained by the withdrawal of the UK from the EU. For example, in December , four members of a criminal network were convicted of running an industrial-scale amphetamine lab in Scotland. Information from law enforcement in Europe suggests that most of the amphetamine produced in Europe is synthesised using the Leuckart method. Other techniques have been encountered, albeit infrequently, including what is commonly called the nitrostyrene method and the pressure reaction method. There have been some recent signals, however, that the nitrostyrene method may become more prominent in the future. This reflects the adaptability and resilience of synthetic drug producers, who can shift and adjust production methods in response to or in anticipation of changes in the availability of chemicals. The Leuckart method is the most commonly used means of manufacturing amphetamine in illicit laboratories in the Netherlands and Belgium. Between and , this method of synthesis was reported in cases in the Netherlands and 23 in Belgium. By contrast, the nitrostyrene method was only identified in one case in the Netherlands in The Leuckart method is a relatively simple, versatile and well-established organic chemistry process that converts carbonyl compounds aldehydes or ketones into amines, under heating. This method may also be used in the synthesis of methamphetamine, MDMA, MDA and a number of other compounds, depending on what carbonyl and amine combination is used see Figure Main precursors and essential chemicals needed for the synthesis of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA and MDA via the Leuckart method. Typically, the Leuckart synthesis of amphetamine starts with heating BMK with formamide, often in the presence of formic acid, to form an intermediate N -formylamphetamine or N-FA. This intermediate is converted to amphetamine base oil and the base oil is subsequently processed into the desired amphetamine salt typically amphetamine sulfate. Although uncomplicated, the method suffers from product losses, mostly due to impurities generated from side reactions, but also because of the extensive and often incomplete purification steps. Risks associated with the Leuckart method are mostly related to fire, if open flames are used, and possible overheating during the initial synthesis steps, which can result in hot chemicals being spilled or projected. BMK is a crucial starting material for the synthesis of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Despite legal controls on its trade, significant amounts of BMK oil are still trafficked predominantly from China and Hong Kong into Europe every year, with the Netherlands reporting the most seizures. To avoid these controls, synthetic drug producers can use a number of non-scheduled alternative chemicals that can be converted into BMK. The last few years have seen a number of alternative chemicals being successively and rapidly introduced into Europe in response to or even in anticipation of the introduction of legal controls; this is indicative of a resilient and adaptable market, run by well-informed synthetic drug producers. When BMK is used to produce amphetamine, formamide is the chemical used to synthesise the drug. This can occur in the presence or absence of formic acid, which can reduce the temperatures reached in the Leuckart reaction. Reflecting its role as a global amphetamine producer, Europe remains the region where the largest seizures of formamide and formic acid are reported INCB, In , almost 39 litres of formamide were seized by four EU countries Belgium, Germany, Poland and the Netherlands , alongside almost 28 litres of formic acid reported by Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands see Figure Quantities of seized chemicals associated with the Leuckart method in the EU, In , the scale of seizures was slightly more modest 10 litres of formamide, close to 10 litres of formic acid , yet still significant at the global level. Where contextual information was available, the seizures were carried out in illicit laboratories and warehouses associated with amphetamine production, either exclusively or in conjunction with other drugs or precursors INCB, , a. Dutch law enforcement intelligence indicates that formamide, BMK and its alternative chemicals are mostly obtained from China. Formamide is often found in large litre barrels National Police of the Netherlands, These shipments are frequently imported into various European countries and eventually transported to the Netherlands by road, rather than being shipped there directly. Formamide is also diverted from legitimate chemical suppliers in the EU, a practice that has been noted in Germany. These chemicals, regardless of their origin, are typically mislabelled, for example as cleaning products. Other chemicals, including solvents, gas cylinders, acids and bases may be sourced from several European countries, including Poland and Germany, where a number of legitimate chemical companies are based see Box Illegal dumping of chemical waste leads to precursor supplier. Russia is also thought to be an important source of sodium hydroxide for Dutch synthetic drug laboratories, including those producing amphetamine National Police of the Netherlands, , but presumably this supply has been interrupted by the war in Ukraine. In one case, reported by Germany in , the seizure of precursors associated with amphetamine production occurred in a large illicit laboratory operated with the support of Dutch criminals. The use of BMK and its alternative chemicals in the synthesis of amphetamine can be circumvented by use of the nitrostyrene method also known as the nitropropene method. Production of amphetamine using the nitrostyrene method has rarely been reported in Europe, with the exception of Poland. In Europe, seizures of precursors and essential chemicals associated with the nitrostyrene method are typically small in scale compared to those associated with the Leuckart method. A possible reason for this may be that the chemicals needed for the nitrostyrene method are widely used in various industries. Where data are available, the seizures typically occur in small to mid-size illicit laboratories. Between and , the method of amphetamine synthesis used in illicit laboratories in Poland was reported in 22 cases, with 10 using the nitrostyrene method and 12 using the Leuckart method. The nitrostyrene method proceeds through the formation of a bright yellow intermediate 1-phenylnitropropene or P2NP from benzaldehyde and nitroethane in the presence of catalytic amounts of an amine via a standard Knoevenagel reaction. This intermediate can be converted into amphetamine oil by a number of reduction techniques and is finally purified and converted into amphetamine sulfate. These processes are relatively simple, high yielding and avoid the use of controlled chemicals. The second step is particularly hazardous as it generates heat and needs to be carefully controlled to avoid explosions and fires breaking out at the production sites — particularly if the synthesis is being conducted on a large scale. In , seizures amounted to only 19 kilograms all in Austria see Figure Quantities of seized chemicals that may be associated with the nitrostyrene method in the EU, While this suggests that the method is mainly restricted to small production sites and has not been gaining ground in recent years, it should be noted that in at least one seizure of just over litres of benzaldehyde was reported by the Netherlands. Together with recent seizures of these chemicals elsewhere, this may indicate that this production method may become more prominent in Europe. These developments need to be carefully monitored in the future. Information from law enforcement agencies suggests that this synthetic route is mostly associated with the production of MDMA, but that on a limited number of occasions it has been used in amphetamine production, simply by changing the precursor from PMK to BMK. In these cases, the method is initiated by reacting BMK and ammonia in a solvent in the presence of a catalyst e. Raney nickel. The air generated by the reaction is removed by vacuum and hydrogen gas is added at a defined pressure. As the reaction proceeds, the temperature rises while the pressure lowers until both are stable. The resulting amphetamine oil can then be separated from the catalyst and purified by distillation. This method is more demanding and requires more sophisticated equipment than the other two methods described here. The piece of equipment that is central to amphetamine production is the reaction vessel, however other equipment is also needed, for example separators, drying apparatus, presses, vacuum heat sealers and tablet presses, some of which are commercially available. Large-scale amphetamine producers use increasingly customised — or fully custom-made — high-quality reaction vessels in order to eliminate possible tracing and to increase the amount of amphetamine produced, and hence their profits. In addition to custom-made equipment, which is on occasion outsourced to specialists, equipment may also be purchased from online and offline vendors. Reaction vessel capacities vary depending on the need, from small-scale, litre capacity, to industrial-scale vessels that can hold 4 litres or more of reactants. Criminal networks are adaptable and can readily find equipment suppliers, either via brokers or by engaging directly with the producers. Companies and individuals in the metal industry may be approached by criminal networks for the purpose of sourcing, building or customising equipment. As production equipment becomes more sophisticated, the task of identifying and dismantling the equipment becomes more challenging, and, in some cases, more dangerous for law enforcement. Synthetic drug production poses a number of other possible hazards. In the last few years, several fatalities have been recorded in synthetic drug production laboratories in the Netherlands and Belgium as a result of fires or explosions van den Berg, or due to suffocation from carbon monoxide or other toxic fumes caused by the production process Steenberghe, A scientific review of cases of exposure to chemicals in illicit drug laboratories linked this contact not only to mild or moderate respiratory, ocular and dermal effects, but also to severe symptoms and fatalities Koppen et al. The manufacture of amphetamine not only poses hazards to those involved in its production; it also entails the generation of chemical waste products, which are typically dumped away from the production site, sometimes even in neighbouring countries. Such waste has been found dumped in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. Such practices can frustrate efforts to identify production sites and present collateral risks for the environment and the people involved, as well as the local community. The waste generated by the production of synthetic drugs can be estimated on the basis of instructions found in dismantled illicit laboratories. For the conversion of BMK to amphetamine and the synthesis of BMK from alternative chemicals, it has been estimated that the manufacture of one kilogram of amphetamine generates between 19 and 39 kilograms of chemical waste Ter Laak and Mehlbaum, This results in health risks, environmental damage and high clean-up costs. A variety of methods are used to dispose of these large quantities of chemical waste. For example, the waste may be simply poured down the sink or toilet, although this is unlikely to be a common practice, as the waste can be corrosive or so viscous that it would damage the pipes or block the drains. However, if chemical waste is disposed of in this way, it may affect the quality of drinking water or adversely affect municipal wastewater treatment plants Emke et al. A more common occurrence is that members of the public report containers of waste dumped in the countryside. There have also been instances where waste has been found buried underground or discharged directly into the soil. Waste can also be left in abandoned properties or loaded into stolen vans or lorry trailers, which may then be set on fire to conceal forensic evidence. More elaborate methods have been found, including the use of modified vans that pump waste onto road surfaces. The dumping of synthetic drug production waste directly into surface waters, or indirectly via the sewers and wastewater treatment plants, can affect surface water quality Emke et al. Scenario studies making use of hydrological modelling illustrate that a large emission of drug production waste from an illicit laboratory into a sewer or directly into surface water can temporarily affect surface water quality over wide distances Pronk, Waste discharged into surface water can be cleaned up when the water is stagnant, such as in lakes or ditches, and the response time is short. However, this is not possible in large rivers and fast-flowing streams Ter Laak and Mehlbaum, Four dumping sites specifically related to amphetamine production were reported in the EU in two in Belgium and another two in the Netherlands. This represents only a fraction of the total dumping sites reported in the EU that year. It is therefore likely that many more of these sites were related to amphetamine production but this cannot be confirmed, as samples are not always taken for analysis to ascertain the particular synthetic drug or chemical processes to which the waste related. Knowledge of the mechanisms and extent of environmental damage related to synthetic drug production is fragmented and the topic is under-researched. A study on the impact of synthetic drug production on the environment through the analysis of contaminants in groundwater samples was commissioned to shed some light on this issue see Box Groundwater contamination related to synthetic drug production waste disposal. While stand-alone studies on specific impacts have been conducted, a more comprehensive and complete assessment of the environmental impact of synthetic drug production has not yet been carried out. Show source table hidden by default due to large size. Consult the list of references used in this resource. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Table of contents Search within the book. Introduction Introduction Key findings and threat assessment Key findings and threat assessment Global context Global context Production in Europe Production in Europe Trafficking and supply Trafficking and supply Criminal networks Criminal networks Prices and purities Prices and purities Retail markets Retail markets Effects, risks and harms of use Effects, risks and harms of use Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. Search within the book Operator Any match. Exact term match only. Source data. Quantities of seized chemicals associated with the Leuckart method in the EU, Quantity litres Formamide Formic acid Quantities of seized chemicals that may be associated with the nitrostyrene method in the EU, Quantity kg Benzaldehyde Phenylnitropropene Nitroethane 1 0 1 0 12 15 3 35 22 44 78 1 1 14 2 2 11 4 4. Main subject. Target audience. Publication type. EU Drug Market: Amphetamine — main page. 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