Buying Ecstasy online in Fez

__________________________

📍 Verified store!

📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!

__________________________

▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼

▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲

Buying Ecstasy online in Fez

Gingivitis and Periodontitis are two conditions that affect many people in the form of bleeding gums, tooth sensitivity and bad breath. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they represent distinct stages of gum disease with varying severity. Gingivitis is one of the earliest stages of gum disease. It primarily affects the gums and is characterised by inflammation and irritation. Some key features of Gingivitis include:. The good news is that you can manage Gingivitis with proper care and regular dentistry check-ups. However, if left untreated, Gingivitis can lead to Periodontitis, a more severe form of gum disease. Periodontitis is a more severe type of gum disease that, if neglected, can result in irreparable harm. It affects the gums, bone, and other tooth-supporting tissues. Here are some characteristics of Periodontitis:. Periodontitis is a severe condition that requires immediate attention from the dentist. Treatment for Periodontitis is more involved and may include deep cleaning, scaling and root planning, and even surgical procedures in advanced cases. The main cause of Gingivitis is the buildup of plaque, a bacterial film adhering to the teeth and gums. Poor oral hygiene is the most common cause. However, the chance of developing Gingivitis can be raised by several other elements, including smoking, hormonal changes such as those during pregnancy , certain medications, and underlying medical disorders. However, once the condition gets severe, you might notice some of these symptoms:. An important note is that Gingivitis can often be painless or cause only mild discomfort, leading people to overlook its seriousness. Periodontitis typically develops from untreated Gingivitis. This progression is usually driven by the same factors that cause Gingivitis, such as poor oral hygiene and smoking. However, genetic factors can also play a role in making some individuals more susceptible to Periodontitis. The symptoms are more severe, including forming pockets, receding gums, loose teeth, and potential pus discharge. If you experience any of the above symptoms, seek immediate dental care, as the damage caused by this dental problem is irreversible. Alpha Dental Clinic in Perth has emergency dental care , where our experienced dentists will take care of your urgent oral health needs with utmost professionalism and expertise. The treatment for Gingivitis is generally less invasive than that for Periodontitis. It primarily involves improving oral hygiene practices. Our dentists at Alpha Dental Clinic may recommend the following based on the severity of the problem:. With proper care and maintenance, Gingivitis can be completely cured. Periodontitis treatment is more complex and may require several visits to your dentist. Treatment options are:. Treatment for Periodontitis may not be able to reverse all the damage, but it can help manage the condition and prevent further deterioration. If you are looking for the best dentist in Perth, Alpha Dental is the top choice for comprehensive and exceptional dental care. Preventing both Gingivitis and Periodontitis starts with excellent oral hygiene practices:. Maintaining optimal dental health is a continuous process rather than a one-time approach. Gum diseases should never be left unattended. Using electric toothbrushes has proven highly effective in preventing the onset of Gingivitis and Periodontitis. Book your appointment with Alpha Dental Clinic if you suspect any gum diseases. Your teeth will thank you for it! Somebody essentially lend a hand to make significantly articles Id state That is the very first time I frequented your website page and up to now I surprised with the research you made to make this actual submit amazing Wonderful task. I simply could not go away your web site prior to suggesting that I really enjoyed the standard info a person supply on your guests Is going to be back incessantly to investigate crosscheck new posts. Hi i think that i saw you visited my web site thus i came to Return the favore Im attempting to find things to enhance my siteI suppose its ok to use a few of your ideas. Hello i think that i saw you visited my weblog so i came to Return the favore Im trying to find things to improve my web siteI suppose its ok to use some of your ideas. Somebody essentially help to make significantly articles Id state This is the first time I frequented your web page and up to now I surprised with the research you made to make this actual post incredible Fantastic job. The full glance of your web site is excellent, let alone the content material! You can see similar here sklep internetowy. Thank you for your sharing. I am worried that I lack creative ideas. It is your article that makes me full of hope. Thank you. But, I have a question, can you help me? I was recommended this website by my cousin I am not sure whether this post is written by him as nobody else know such detailed about my difficulty You are wonderful Thanks. Just kidding, mainly because I had some doubts after reading the article. What fabulous ideas you have concerning this subject! By the way, check out my website at Webemail24 for content about Blogging. Superb layout and design, but most of all, concise and helpful information. Great job, site admin. Take a look at my website Seoranko for some cool facts about Website Traffic. Very interesting points you have observed, regards for putting up. Raise your business. Online medicine home delivery: online shopping pharmacy india — reputable indian pharmacies. Your ability to tackle complex topics with ease is truly admirable. Your blog is a beacon of light in the often murky waters of online content. Your thoughtful analysis and insightful commentary never fail to leave a lasting impression. Keep up the amazing work! Its like you read my mind You appear to know a lot about this like you wrote the book in it or something I think that you could do with some pics to drive the message home a little bit but instead of that this is fantastic blog An excellent read I will certainly be back. Your writing has a way of resonating with me on a deep level. I appreciate the honesty and authenticity you bring to every post. Thank you for sharing your journey with us. I loved as much as you will receive carried out right here The sketch is attractive your authored material stylish nonetheless you command get got an impatience over that you wish be delivering the following unwell unquestionably come more formerly again since exactly the same nearly a lot often inside case you shield this hike. Your blog is like a beacon of light in the vast expanse of the internet. Thank you for all that you do. Excellent blog here Also your website loads up very fast What web host are you using Can I get your affiliate link to your host I wish my web site loaded up as quickly as yours lol. Your blog has quickly become my go-to source for reliable information and thought-provoking commentary. Keep up the excellent work! Its like you read my mind You appear to know so much about this like you wrote the book in it or something I think that you can do with a few pics to drive the message home a little bit but other than that this is fantastic blog A great read Ill certainly be back. I just could not depart your web site prior to suggesting that I really loved the usual info an individual supply in your visitors Is gonna be back regularly to check up on new posts. I have been browsing online more than three hours today yet I never found any interesting article like yours It is pretty worth enough for me In my view if all website owners and bloggers made good content as you did the internet will be a lot more useful than ever before. Your writing is like a breath of fresh air in the often stale world of online content. Your unique perspective and engaging style set you apart from the crowd. Thank you for sharing your talents with us. Simply wish to say your article is as amazing The clearness in your post is just nice and i could assume youre an expert on this subject Well with your permission let me to grab your feed to keep updated with forthcoming post Thanks a million and please carry on the gratifying work. My brother suggested I might like this blog He was totally right This post actually made my day You can not imagine simply how much time I had spent for this info Thanks. Hello my loved one I want to say that this post is amazing great written and include almost all significant infos I would like to look extra posts like this. Link pyramid, tier 1, tier 2, tier 3 Primary — references with placement inside writings on content platforms. A link network is a instrument for elevating the circulation and inbound links of a internet domain or social media platform. Your blog is a true gem in the world of online content. Thank you for sharing your wisdom with us. I just wanted to drop by and say how much I appreciate your blog. Your writing style is both engaging and informative, making it a pleasure to read. Looking forward to your future posts! Blockchain App Factory owns the legacy by providing some cutting-edge solutions to clients across the globe in all business spectra looking to optimize the Web 3. Our experience with blockchains enables us to provide custom blockchain solutions for applications in many industries. Automate, authenticate, decentralize and save associated costs with our inventively designed NFTs, NFT marketplaces, crypto exchanges, cryptocurrency wallets, and DeFi solutions among others. Nodes will be removed from and added to one or more chains on a non-deterministic schedule. This revolving process of random node rotation enables every configurable blockchain to leverage the security pool of the entire network on behalf of each chain. While no-limit games allow any player to bet all they have at any time, pot-limit games restrict any raises to the size of the pot. Real Estate Great information shared.. It is a pleasure to read this weblog, thanks to its up-to-date information and interesting posts. Look into my web page 48U for some really good points and find out more about Thai-Massage. I do trust all the ideas youve presented in your post They are really convincing and will definitely work Nonetheless the posts are too short for newbies May just you please lengthen them a bit from next time Thank you for the post. Mygreat learning I do not even understand how I ended up here, but I assumed this publish used to be great. Fourweekmba I just like the helpful information you provide in your articles. Simplywall I truly appreciate your technique of writing a blog. I added it to my bookmark site list and will. The game development process includes documenting codes, APIs, and design choices to ensure smooth development and user experience. There are several reasons why companies outsource mobile game development services like as Cost-effectiveness, Expertise, Time-saving, Faster time to market, Access to technology or Flexibility. So Outsourcing mobile game development services can provide significant benefits for companies looking to develop high-quality games while minimizing costs and time to market. Having been in the game development industry for four to five years, a company can say with confidence that they have developed several games and are well-versed in the sector. Guests can enjoy live music concerts from local, national, and international stars. Patrons can also enjoy stand-up comedies and other creative performances. Aristocrat Technologies Inc. The site is expected to offer virtual versions of electronic games as well as some versions of table games. Take a spin and hit it big with over 4, slots, your favorite game is sure to be waiting for you. These third-party ad servers or ad networks use technology in their respective advertisements and links that appear on northwoodsleague, northwoodsleague. They automatically receive your IP address when this occurs. Simply desire to say your article is as surprising The clearness in your post is simply excellent and i could assume you are an expert on this subject Fine with your permission let me to grab your feed to keep up to date with forthcoming post Thanks a million and please carry on the gratifying work. Wonderful beat I wish to apprentice while you amend your web site how could i subscribe for a blog web site The account aided me a acceptable deal I had been a little bit acquainted of this your broadcast provided bright clear idea. Online medicine order Online medicine home delivery best online pharmacy india. Your blog is a true hidden gem on the internet. Your thoughtful analysis and engaging writing style set you apart from the crowd. Cast Iron Pipes : Durable and soundproof, cast iron pipes are used in drainage systems. ElitePipe Factory in Iraq delivers top-tier cast iron pipes. Ductile Iron Pipes : Strong and flexible, ductile iron pipes are used for high-pressure water and sewage systems. ElitePipe Factory in Iraq excels in producing ductile iron pipes. You can start playing at GGBet casino with 50 free spins without making any deposits. Our visitors get an exclusive no deposit bonus which can only be claimed by using our link. Keep reading to learn more! The Betfair Casino 50 free spins offer has a promo code attached. Loot Casino is kindred to Reel Vegas on the ground that its Tuko Productions slots and Foxium slots, it remains an incredible effort. Upon signup, adding in the different bonus features from each game. One you have successfully collected the data, the dealer will spin the roulette wheel. There is one more pleasant thing to mention, deposit or withdraw using the drop down menu at the top of the page. The process is very easy and fast and only requires you to provide your full name, whereas the money can be wagered on any games available in the casino section. Farmacia online miglior prezzo: farmacia online migliore — comprare farmaci online con ricetta. Farmacie online sicure Tadalafil generico migliore Farmacie on line spedizione gratuita. Farmacie on line spedizione gratuita: Cialis generico controindicazioni — farmacie online autorizzate elenco. Farmacie online sicure Brufen senza ricetta farmacie online affidabili. Joint Genesis Reviews, Pricing, and bonuses visit here: joint genesis. Pharmacie Internationale en ligne pharmacie en ligne pas cher pharmacie en ligne sans ordonnance. Quand une femme prend du Viagra homme: Viagra generique en pharmacie — Viagra sans ordonnance 24h suisse. I am truly thankful to the owner of this web site who has shared this fantastic piece of writing at at this place. Sky Scarlet Nice post. I learn something totally new and challenging on websites. Your email address will not be published. Previous post. Next post. Difference between Gingivitis and Periodontitis Gingivitis: Gingivitis is one of the earliest stages of gum disease. Some key features of Gingivitis include: Redness and Swelling: Infected gums become red, swollen, and tender to the touch. Bleeding Gums: One of the most common signs of Gingivitis is bleeding gums, especially during brushing or flossing. Bad Breath: Another sign is persistent poor breath or a sour taste in the mouth. Mild Discomfort: May experience mild discomfort or pain while chewing food. Periodontitis: Periodontitis is a more severe type of gum disease that, if neglected, can result in irreparable harm. Here are some characteristics of Periodontitis: Pocket Formation: As the infection progresses, pockets or spaces develop between the teeth and gums, which can trap bacteria and debris. Tooth Mobility: Teeth may become loose and start shifting out of position. Pus Formation: Sometimes, pus can develop around the teeth and gums. Bone Loss: The infection can lead to significant bone loss, potentially causing tooth loss. Reasons and Symptoms Gingivitis: The main cause of Gingivitis is the buildup of plaque, a bacterial film adhering to the teeth and gums. However, once the condition gets severe, you might notice some of these symptoms: Redness Swelling Bleeding gums and bad breath. Periodontitis: Periodontitis typically develops from untreated Gingivitis. Treatment Gingivitis: The treatment for Gingivitis is generally less invasive than that for Periodontitis. Our dentists at Alpha Dental Clinic may recommend the following based on the severity of the problem: Professional Cleaning: Removing plaque and tartar buildup through a professional dental cleaning is crucial. Improved Home Care: Brushing and flossing regularly and correctly. Antiseptic Mouthwash: Using an antiseptic mouthwash to reduce bacteria. Regular Dental Check-ups: Visit our dental clinic in Perth for routine check-ups and cleanings. Periodontitis: Periodontitis treatment is more complex and may require several visits to your dentist. Treatment options are: Scaling and root planning: a complete cleaning to remove tartar and plaque from the tooth roots. Medications: Antibiotics or antimicrobial mouth rinses to reduce infection. Surgery: In advanced cases, surgical procedures may be necessary to repair damaged tissue or regenerate bone. Lifestyle Changes: Quitting smoking and maintaining a stringent oral hygiene routine. Prevention Techniques Preventing both Gingivitis and Periodontitis starts with excellent oral hygiene practices: Use fluoride toothpaste and brush twice for two minutes. Flossing helps eliminate plaque and trapped food particles between your teeth. Visit your dentist for regular check-ups and thorough cleanings at least twice a year. Quitting smoking can greatly lower your risk of developing gum disease. Check out our blog on how smoking can affect your dental health. Consume foods low in sugar and acidity and plenty of fruits and vegetables. If you have diabetes or other health conditions, speak with your doctor to manage them effectively. Wow, incredible blog structure! How lengthy have you ever been blogging for? Thanks for sharing. I read many of your blog posts, cool, your blog is very good. Need: One link to the website. Valid when 1 keyword from the page topic. Highlight the complementary feature! Top connections do not overlap with Secondary and Tertiary-rank references A link network is a instrument for elevating the circulation and inbound links of a internet domain or social media platform. Leave a comment Your email address will not be published.

20 years of Portuguese drug policy - developments, challenges and the quest for human rights

Buying Ecstasy online in Fez

Metrics details. Portugal decriminalized the public and private use, acquisition, and possession of all drugs in ; adopting an approach focused on public health rather than public-order priorities. Arguing that the Portuguese Drug Policy Model has not proven influential enough to emancipate drug use from the stigma that associates it either with crime or pathology, this article critically discusses the developments and current challenges the Portuguese drug policy confronts, namely the growing diversity of drug use patterns observed in Portugal as well as in Europe. To this end, international and national legal instruments concerning drugs and official local data were analysed. Despite encouraging results, conclusions indicate that these policies are marked by contradictions and ambiguities that have permeated its history since the very beginning, and modest ambitions, particularly regarding the implementation of harm reduction measures. The last decade saw an increase of punitiveness targeted at drug users, including criminal sentences of jail terms. We finish with some suggestions that could be employed in the practical application of drug policy. Manichean creeds have long dominated the ideology behind drug policy. Despite the widespread advocacy for evidence-based policies \[ 1 \] and policies encompassing human rights \[ 2 \], those creeds conveyed drug use as an exceptionally dangerous behaviour, maintaining till the present day the goal of a drug-free society \[ 3 \]. Yet, the decriminalization movement seems to be increasingly appealing around the globe \[ 4 \]. The distinction between soft and hard drugs was abolished \[ 5 \]. Drug use became an administratively sanctionable misdemeanor, but not a crime, and was placed under the jurisdiction of the Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction, created by the Decree-Law n. The PDPM is in line with the belief that the War on Drugs has failed, thus pledging to guarantee greater respect for the rights of people who use drugs; and it is also consonant with the wider European and global trends toward policies that lessen drug use penalties \[ 6 \]. This paradigm shift, which moved the solution to drug use from the public order to the public health domain - hence differentiating between the user and the dealer, the former seen as an ill person in need of care, and the second as a delinquent - has fueled intense national and international academic debate and stirred antagonistic discourse, sometimes presented as a success \[e. As Laqueur \[ 10 \] puts it, the Portuguese decriminalization experience became a kind of screen onto which drug policy agendas are projected. Generally speaking, the PDPM is internationally recognized for its humanistic and pragmatic character and as exemplary of a participatory process \[ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 \], although with varying degrees of consensus \[see \[ 16 \]\]. Most analyses about the Portuguese case tend to focus on the encouraging results Footnote 1 regarding drug use prevalence, which stayed reasonably low when compared to other European countries \[ 19 \], including those that criminalize drug use; the drop of infectious diseases rates, high in \[ 21 \], as well the decline of the equally high incarceration rates for drug-related offenses \[ 22 , 23 \]. These tendencies cannot be, however, linearly related with the decriminalization law per se, as Laqueur 10 and Quintas \[ 24 \] have shown. Paradoxically, the last decade has seen a sharp increase of criminal sanctions targeted at drug users, including some with jail terms \[ 25 , 26 , 27 \]. Indeed, prohibitionism has not been discarded. Portugal is a signatory of United Nations Drug Conventions and, despite its efforts to inscribe drug policy within the scope of human rights, it does so within conservative lines, specifically those informed by the right to equal access to health and to non-discriminatory treatment before justice. The debate that frames drug use under the light of the right to privacy and to individual freedom, the right to cognitive freedom; or the right to use drugs, as Van Ree \[ 28 \] proposed, is peripheral. Similarly, alternative discourses have played an almost marginal role in the Portuguese academic debate; namely those that, recommending a drug-set-setting triad for understanding the phenomenon \[ 29 \], paved the way for a conception of drug use based on hedonistic motivations, pleasure-seeking, mind-expansion or inner exploration. Historically contextualizing the emergence of the PDPM, this article critically discusses the major developments and current challenges that Portuguese drug policy confronts in the face of the growing diversity of drug use patterns observed in Portugal. Some of these challenges include 1 the apparent paradox of Portugal having decriminalized the use of drugs and yet registering a sharp increase of punitiveness targeted at drug users over the past decade; 2 the ambiguities and anachronisms that permeate the practices of the Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction; 3 and the hesitations regarding the implementation of harm reduction measures, some foreseen in the law since To this end, the following documents were analysed: 1 the three main United Nations Drug Conventions texts , , , which constitute the international legal instruments on drugs; 2 the main local legislation on drugs; and 3 the data collected by the General Directorate for Intervention on Addictive Behaviours and Dependencies SICAD regarding the drug use situation in Portugal. Three time-frames assume special relevance: 1 between and , in which the production of local legislation was often pervaded by an ambivalence between punishing or supporting drug users; 2 between and , in which the crime of drug use disappeared from the Portuguese legal landscape; 3 since , when the crime of drug use has been re-established by the Supreme Court judgment n. The main argument developed is that the PDPM has not proven influential enough to emancipate drug use from the stigma that associates it with either crime or pathology, where it is kept captive. We finish with some suggestions to be applied in practice. Portugal joined the War on Drugs in the seventies, even though drug use was not, at the time, a relevant social problem in the country, nor did the legislator distinguish, until then, between drug use and drug dealing. The utopia of a drug-free society, in Portugal and elsewhere, has been sustained by conservative discourses coined in the sphere of law political-legal discourses and in the sphere of health medical-psychological discourses which, operating as vehicles of social control, converge in the understanding of drug use as a deviation in relation to the norm, whether in legal crime or health terms pathology. Meanwhile, the harm reduction movement has challenged global prohibitionism \[ 30 \] and establishes itself, at least potentially, as a motor of social transformation. The liberation of the drug use phenomenon from the War on Drugs paradigm \[ 31 \] seems to be at the core of the double HR - harm reduction and human rights see Soares et al. The latter, distant from the activism that originally opposed prohibitionism, unfolds the historic tension between health priorities and profound political change regarding drug use \[ 34 \], which is also found, as we shall see, in the challenges the PDPM faces. At the time, the law emphasized the immorality of drugs and the lack of criminal liability of the user, based upon an exclusively public security perspective to the detriment of health, which was not in line with that convention. Not much later, the Decree-Law n. Main Portuguese legal diplomas on drugs. From: Timeline designed by the authors. Cited legal instruments: Decree-law n. Ministry of Justice; Decree-law n. Ministry of Justice and Health; Decree-law n. Ministry of Justice; Law n. Following the increase in cannabis use and the emergence of heroin - dynamics that took shape after the end of the dictatorship period \[ 7 \] in - the Decree-Law n. Change took place under the auspices of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances , which encouraged the treatment and reintegration of users. However, considering drug phenomena as the plague of our days , it proposed for trafficking counter-measures similar to those used against terrorist organizations , which meant the aggravation of penalties, including provision of new means of obtaining evidence, and the unequivocal criminalization of drug use \[ 35 \]. The user came to be perceived as captive of either the determinism of crime or of the determinism of pathology \[ 36 \], in a scheme that Costa \[ 25 \] calls the mixed medical-criminal system - a combination of repressive measures with those of a medical character; resulting in a double stigma that persists, with some variants, to the present day \[ 37 \]. The Decree-Law n. Still partially in force, it is perhaps the most ambiguous legislation in the Portuguese drug policy panorama. The penal regime of drug use, globally considered, was aggravated \[ 25 \]: besides the acquisition and the possession for personal use, the use and the cultivation for personal use are also dealt with; jail terms of up to 3 months remained similar to the previous Decree-Law, but where the amounts apprehended exceed those required for 5 days - and here lies much of the novelty - jail time is extended to 1 year. It is not surprising to find that, although the user was, as early as , sanctioned by the law almost quasi-symbolically Decree-Law n. This tendency was observed until , when - once decriminalization came into force - crimes against property were again in the top spot \[ 39 \], as they remain nowadays. Footnote 2. Not free from ambivalence, the Portuguese drug policies have made their way from public order to public health domains while, nevertheless, mixing the two concerns. The theme was dealt with as something that disturbs the social order, establishing itself as a commonplace both in the popular imagination and in the political and media agenda. Meanwhile, the medical-psychological model, militating toward abstinence as the sole legitimate therapeutic goal and focusing on the most troublesome side of the phenomenon, found expression in the design of policies that feed the image of the drug user as someone susceptible to compulsive treatment. Paternalistically, the Decree-Law n. The progressive transformation of the status of the user answers old quests, such as the American Psychiatric Association one, which included, in , addictive behaviours in the list of mental illnesses; or the UN Convention that endorsed treatment and reintegration as an appropriate response instead of punishment. At the end of the nineties, the vulnerability of high-risk users raised concerns among the broader society - for example, the HIV epidemic was exploding \[ 12 \] - and legislative change was imperative. The PDPM is inextricable from its socio-historical background. Contrary to what has been observed in other countries - where the discussion about decriminalization has been linked to the increasing prevalence of cannabis use and to a certain normalization of its use among youth \[ 18 \] - in Portugal, the political debate was driven by the concern about the psychosocial vulnerability of high-risk users, whose long trajectories on drugs have made evident the signs of stigma and social exclusion. Problematic heroin use was the second highest in Europe in \[ 41 \] and, although it has been losing its relevance, Portugal remains among the countries with a higher ratio of high-risk opioid use 5,2 per of the adult population in \[ 19 \]. This circumstance engendered a complex challenge - that of devising policies that had a social and human side capable of responding to the situation of exclusion in which drug users found themselves. This might justify the fact that the decriminalization law is based on a dichotomous classification of drug users - dependents and non-dependents - which, already formulated in the Decree-Law n. Among the main outcomes lies the significant increase of the number of drug users who are encompassed by the system, which is not necessarily a surprise: from an average of 1. Still, it sharply contrasts with what has been observed in California, where a decrease in cannabis detections and referrals was registered after the Moscone Act, which turned small quantity possession of cannabis into a misdemeanour sanctionable by a fine \[ 43 \]. But the virtues of the PDPM do not only rely on the decriminalization law per se, but on the set of devices forged and implemented in the meantime. Alongside the legislative changes, it became evident that there was a need to develop more specialized and autonomous coordination mechanisms, namely the Commissions for the Dissuasion of Drug Addiction, responsible for implementing administrative sanctions, and harm reduction structures, lacking at that time. Footnote 3. By isolating law enforcement from the operationalization of measures outside the criminal arena, the security inclination that so often characterizes drug policies should be obliterated; thus, distinguishing the Portuguese case from others, such as Spain or Italy, which had adopted earlier the administrative approach to sanction drug use \[ 25 , 45 \]. Police forces are expected to remain the primary source of detection of drug use and subsequent referral. Footnote 4. Its main goal is encouraging adherence to treatment, or the decision to abstain from drug use Decree-Law n. Moreover, while referral to health structures is optional, physically presenting oneself before the Commissions is mandatory for those who are caught using drugs. This circumstance is somehow contradictory to the mainstream perspective, which frames drug use in the health sphere, where consent is pivotal. This is the position, for instance, recommended by the Mental Health Law Law n. Divergent from the initial intuition, perhaps fed by the images of drug users in extreme situations of social exclusion, dominant in the end of the twentieth century, it quickly became apparent that the vast majority of the clients of the Commissions were and are cannabis users classified as non-dependents. The reason behind this circumstance is that cannabis is the most widely used illegal drug \[ 49 \], in Portugal and elsewhere, its use is socially widespread, and it occurs mostly on the street and in public spaces during leisure time \[ 50 \]. Overlooking the diversification of drug use patterns, the dependent or non-dependent dichotomy proposed by Law n. Certainly the PDPM facet that has raised the most opposition, harm reduction policies expanded as a direct result of the decriminalization law. Throughout its short history, from clandestinity to political legitimacy, it went through an experimental phase — in which programs e. The initial goal was the access to hard-to-reach heroin and crack-cocaine users who resisted the traditional socio-health approaches based on pathology \[ 44 \]. Others worth mentioning are the absence of needle and syringe programmes in prison contexts; or the absence of naloxone prescription for outpatient use, either among outreach teams or peers, since it remains exclusive to hospitals and medical emergency services. Footnote 7. Despite the fact that the vast majority of drug users are non-problematic, services are, with some notable exceptions, mainly focused on opioid substitution treatment partially serving purposes related with public order and on needle and syringe exchange with public health preoccupations underneath , thus configuring the weak version of harm reduction: the one that advocates mainly health rights, as opposed to its strong version , which fully recognizes the right to use drugs \[ 33 \]. The implementation of solely uncontroversial measures has allowed the maintenance of the status quo. Despite being humanistic and pragmatic on the ground, political hesitation in this sphere works in compliance with the War on Drugs. In , the Supreme Court of Justice took the position, by judgment n. These quantities are defined by the ordinance Law n. A number of factors contributed to this situation. In , and contrary to what has happened with drug use, Law n. This last category regards those situations where the individual has the ultimate aim to get substances for personal use that do not exceed the quantities for a medium use of up to five days. Footnote 8. Moreover, the Decree-Law n. Differing from what happened with the decriminalization law, no quantitative limit was established for the purpose of distinguishing between the two behaviours. Law n. However, it does not provide any legal sanctions for those who, as drug users, hold larger amounts. This gave rise to a perturbing possibility: users with less than permitted quantities were sanctioned, even if not criminally; other users, with quantities exceeding those established, would not suffer any sanction, since these sanctions escape the direct provision of the law regarding the difficulty to categorize certain cases, see Domoslawski \[ 12 \]. Later, in , the Constitutional Court did not consider the interpretation of the Supreme Court of Justice unconstitutional and validated its position judgment n. Although not fully binding, judgement n. This position has been seen as polemical \[ 24 \] even among renowned judges, who were persuaded that the Supreme Court action is contrary to the spirit of the decriminalization law \[ 25 \]. It should also be underlined that it is not the quantity that serves to distinguish between use and trafficking. The Portuguese system is a model guided by threshold values only to differentiate between types of use ones that should be considered a crime or a misdemeanour , and avoiding the hazards associated with the introduction of metrics that, in general, generate more punitive systems \[ 26 \]. Paradoxically, despite having decriminalized the use of all illegal drugs, Portugal has an increasing number of people criminally sanctioned - some with prison terms - for drug use \[ 25 , 26 , 27 \]. After Fig. Moreover, between and , while convictions for the crime of drug use saw an increase, convictions for drug dealing, including the dealer-user category, registered a decrease \[ 27 \]. Convicted individuals for drug use, by type of penalty. Remarkably, there is no information available for the crime of drug use. The increase of punitive responses raises the question of what happened in Portugal during the last decade and what is the actual role played by the Supreme Court judgment of Administrative sanctions i. In , compared to previous years, there is evidence of a higher weight of punitive decisions, although the proportion of suspended sentences, punitive sentences and acquittal have remained relatively stable over the past four years \[ 27 \]. Portuguese drug policy has been, since , under great scrutiny, due to the decriminalization approach. Yet, it appears that the PDPM has not proven influential enough to emancipate drug use from the stigma that associates it with either crime or pathology, where it is somehow captive. The analysis carried out allows the conclusion that the PDPM is marked by anachronisms, ambiguity and modest ambition - which reveals the remnants of arguments that see drug use through the lenses of transgression, whether in legal or health terms. These findings lead us to the following final arguments. Since , there has been an increase of criminal sanctions for drug use. A tenacious dilemma - punishment or support? The long-lasting tension between the will to criminalize drug use and comply with United Nations conventions and the aspiration to support drug users has been shown since the very beginning by Portuguese legislation. That tension appears to be heightened as the enthusiasm of the decriminalization law faded away and its execution has been eroded by time or routine. The reestablishment of the crime of drug use - that recaptures drug use in the criminal scope - had blurred the innovative features of the PDPM, standing out, not only as an example of the ambivalence that marks the history of Portuguese drug policy, but perhaps as its most serious setback, putting drug users at risk of criminal sanctions. In this sense, it seems that the legislator - keeping, first, the spirit of the decriminalization law and, second, adopting an evidence-based orientation - should return proven cases of drug use to the Commissions, the body under which this behaviour was initially placed, assuring that drug use stays, as originally, an administratively sanctionable misdemeanor, but not a crime. Adequate and tailored sanctions for these cases, that might foresee an update of the old ordinance Law n. Notwithstanding the fact that Commissions might constitute the most original feature of the PDPM, the drug use landscape is marked by an ever-increasing heterogeneity of drug use patterns \[ 22 \] for which the binary categorization employed, that of dependent and non-dependent users, is inappropriate. These transformations include the progressive substitution of compulsive consumption behaviours that are being replaced by self-care \[ 55 \] and the diversification and multiplicity of drug uses \[ 56 \], in which non-problematic ones are the vast majority, and in which hedonistic motivations assume a central role \[ 57 \]. Furthermore, considering that consent and self-determination are crucial aspects of any intervention in the health realm, we endorse that appearance before the Commissions, instead of being mandatory, should be conditional on the consent of the individual, even if administrative sanctions are still to apply. The decision to undergo any type of diagnosis, clinical evaluation or therapeutic intervention is up to the citizen, within the scope of their rights, freedoms, and guarantees - as is recognized by, for example, the Law of Mental Health. Were it otherwise, it would create a regime of exception within the scope of the response to drug use. Footnote Thirdly, regarding harm reduction policies, it might be observed that these are somehow still oscillating between the concerns that make justice and health priorities. This mirrors how the notion of drug use as something in the pathological scope is well assimilated by Portuguese society and political affairs. Controversy and political opposition, and perhaps social reluctance, seem to arise when harm reduction policies go beyond pathology and highlight issues related to the well-being and the agency of the drug user. Good examples of measures which provoke such pushback whose implementation we nevertheless highly recommend include, for instance, the resistance to implementing drug checking services, crucial to assisting informed choices on drug use. Or the failure to provide naloxone outside medical settings, which, though addressing pathology, would imply transferring powers from the hands of doctors to the hands of the individual. Other recommended programmes in need of implementation include needle and syringe programmes in prison contexts and, in line with the sociocultural transformation of drug use, tailored programmes aimed at poly-drug use, the most common consumption pattern \[ 58 \]; and gender-sensitive programs, which are virtually nonexistent. Following Portuguese sociocultural transformation and the diversification of drug use patterns, observed later in Portugal, but somehow identical to main European trends, drug use is escaping its label as something that unfolds at the margins of society. Besides the focus on the normalization of the use of certain illegal drugs and on recreational uses \[ 59 \], research has addressed patterns of use that are defined as functional \[ 60 \], non-dependent \[ 61 \], religious \[ 62 \], healthy \[ 63 \], socially-integrated \[ 64 \] and non-problematic \[ 57 , 65 \]. These data gather momentum to advocate for the need to consolidate the on-going paradigm shift, namely by strengthening the notions of health that are broad enough to consider well-being and not solely pathology, which obviously is a poor concept when it comes to empowering and respecting the dignity of people who use drugs. As mentioned, such pathologizing serves to undermine the agency and self-determination of people who use drugs \[ 37 \]. Yet, the most ambitious challenge is to promote a debate that places the drug use phenomena in the Human Rights realm, thus favouring the respect for the principles of individual freedom and the right to an informed choice. The interplay between drug phenomena and human rights is far from linear see Bone \[ 2 \]. Different perspectives take shape in the debate, from conservative trenches as the right to equal access to health and justice to the right to use drugs for certain purposes - namely ritual-religious ones, these contemplated in the UN Conventions - or simply the right to use drugs \[ 66 \]. In line with the United Nation General Assembly Special Session Against Corruption \[ 67 \] - which emphasizes a comprehensive approach, but delimits it within the framework of the human rights of health and justice - the debate about the right to use drugs is nearly absent in the Portuguese political, social and academic panorama. On the contrary, and despite the seemingly innovative character of Portuguese drug policy, there have been numerous hesitations, namely with regard to the regulation of medical cannabis, which was approved by the Portuguese government in Law n. Meanwhile, three proposals one in , two in regarding the regulation of recreational use of cannabis took place in the Portuguese parliament, most of them triggered by civil society organizations, and all unsuccessful. These hesitations do not match the progressive transformation of drug use patterns, local and global, nor the several challenges, coming from different quadrants, posed to the War on Drug s , within what some call the transformational movement \[ 46 \]. Opposition to punitive drug policies keeps growing \[ 30 \]. Finally, casting drugs as malevolent agents that allow classifying users as bad or sick or both \[ 31 \] became a fabrication that eases the stigmatization of users and human rights violations \[ 31 \]. A non-paternalistic mid-term view, that broadens the scope of public health to include, for instance, the right to an informed choice and the right to risk taking behaviour - despite the controversial degree of control that individuals might exert over their bodies \[ 33 \] - might offer a possibility. The opportunity is taking shape. It is expected that the regulation of recreational use of cannabis will be soon brought again to public debate. Attributable, at least partially, to the many anachronisms, ambiguities and hesitations described above and, specially, to the reestablishment of the crime of drug use, the last decade has seen a clear increase of punitiveness targeted at drug users, which is not, we believe, in line with the decriminalization law neither with the set of devices forged and implemented alongside the legislative changes. Positive results include a reduction in mortality and infections associated with dependent behaviour and, among youth, a reduction in the prevalence of recent cannabis use, a postponement of the age of initiation and an increase in perceptions of related-risks \[ 17 \]. Overall, one might observe a reasonably low level of drug use when compared with most European countries \[ 19 \], which contrasts to what was witnessed at the end of the last century, a period marked by social and political alarm around drug phenomena. Consonant, social representations are now quite distinct from those that dominated the country earlier and which understood drug use as a serious social problem \[e. Note that the decriminalization law has no impact on incarceration for drug trafficking, since this behavior is regulated by Decree-Law n. These tendencies might indicate either a change in law enforcement priorities, since law enforcement enjoys a certain discretionary power \[ 38 \]; different sentencing practices \[ 10 , 26 \] or a combination of both. This decision was contradicted 4 years later, in , when the institute was extinguished and SICAD was established in its place, which meant that the operationalization of interventions in drug behaviours was delegated to the Regional Health Administrations \[ 44 \]. This change, based on criteria of efficiency and administrative rationality, reinforced intervention on drugs in the health realm, giving less emphasis to a social and human rights approach. Spain and Italy show crucial differences when compared to Portugal. In Spain, use or possession for use, when in a public space, constitutes a serious infraction, framed in the Ley de Seguridad Ciudadana i. This circumstance does not exclude the fact that the normalization of cannabis use is more vigorous in Spain \[ 47 \] - where Cannabis Social Clubs were formed - than in Portugal, a trend that has not been followed by political and legal normalization, since the Supreme Court of Justice has sentenced elements of those clubs with prison sentences, even if lightweight \[ 38 \]. In Italy, drug use sanctions - of essentially a security nature - fall within the competence of the prefetto \[ 48 \]. There are two exceptions to mention: Check-! Exceptions made for one Drug Consumption Room operating since May , and one mobile unit operating since April , both in Lisbon. In , a Needle and Syringe pilot-project ran in the Portuguese prisons for 6 months, but was not used by a single prisoner, see Sander et al. When a person required to appear before the Commissions fails, in fact, to appear, it is common practice to apply the most minor of sanctions, depending on the substance in question. Towards good governance in drug policy: evidence, stakeholders and politics. Int J Drug Policy. Article PubMed Google Scholar. Bone M. Human rights and drug control. London: Routledge; Google Scholar. Outcome document of the United Nations general assembly special session on the world drug problem. Our joint commitment to effectively addressing and countering the world drug problem. New York: United Nations publications; A quiet revolution: drug decriminalisation across the globe. Quintas J. Porto: Fronteira do Caos; Selected issue: Towards a better understanding of drug-related public expenditure in Europe. Accessed 10 mar Cabral T. The 15th anniversary of the Portuguese drug policy: its history, its success and its future. Drug Sci Policy Law ;3 0 :1—5. Greenwald G. Drug decriminalization in Portugal: lessons for creating fair and successful drug policies. Accessed 20 Feb Coelho M. Drugs: the Portuguese fallacy and the absurd medicalization of Europe. Article Google Scholar. Laqueur H. Uses and abuses of drug decriminalization in Portugal. Law Soc Inq. Agra C. Drug policy in Portugal: the benefits of decriminalizing drug use. Warsaw: Open Society Foundations; Hughes C. Portuguese drug policy. In: Colson R, Bergeron H, editors. European drug policies: the ways of reform. Chapter Google Scholar. Hughes C, Stevens A. What can we learn from the Portuguese decriminalization of illicit drugs? Br J Criminol. Woods J. A decade after drug decriminalization: what can the United States learn from the Portuguese model? Univ District Columbia Law Rev. A resounding success or a disastrous failure: re-examining the interpretation of evidence on the Portuguese decriminalisation of illicit drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev. Accessed 7 Feb Portugal - Country drug report Calado V, Lavado E. Public health and international drug policy. European drug report: trends and developments. Accessed 6 Feb Cunha MI. From neighborhood to prison: women and the war on drugs in Portugal. In: Sudbury J, editor. Global lockdown. New York: Routledge; Drogas: uma nova perspectiva. Costa E. Quintas J, Firmiano J. Van Ree E. Drugs as a human right. Zinberg N. Drug, set and setting. Yale: Yale University Press; Levine H. Global drug prohibition: its uses and crises. Tupper K. Contemp Drug Problems. Tackling harm reduction, human rights and drug uses on recreational environments: tensions, potentialities and learnings from the Kosmicare project Portugal. Hunt N. Public health or human rights: what comes first? Roe G. Harm reduction as paradigm: is better than bad good enough? The origins of harm reduction. Crit Public Health. Costa EM. Is decriminalisation enough? Drug user community voices from Portugal. Quintas J, Arana X. Decriminalization: different models in Portugal and Spain. Dual markets: comparative approaches to regulation. NY: Springer; Fernandes L, Silva R. Lisboa: IDT; Lisboa: INCM; Drug policy profiles - Portugal. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; The impact of cannabis decriminalisation in Australia and the United States. J Public Health Policy. Aldrich R, Mikuriya T. Savings in California marijuana law enforcement costs attributable to the Moscone act of - a summary. J Psychoactive Drugs. The austerity measures and the Portuguese model on drugs: an exploratory mixed method research. Accessed 3 Feb Poiares C. Anjos P. In: Fraga P, Carvalho M, editors. Rio de Janeiro: Letra Capital Ed; Cannabis legislation in Europe: an overview. Zuffa G. World Drug Report Vienna: United Nations publications; Accessed 4 June Book Google Scholar. Pennay A, Measham F. The normalisation thesis — 20 years later. Drugs Educ Prev Policy. Barbosa J. Overview of harm reduction in prisons in seven European countries. Harm Reduct J ; Mata S, Fernandes L. Glob J Community Psychol Pract. Fonseca C. Carvalho M. Porto: Campo das Letras; Explanations for drug use and drug dealing in social drug research. Berlin: Pabst Science Publishers; Cruz O. Nonproblematic illegal drug use: drug use management strategies in a Portuguese sample. J Drug Issues. Polydrug Use: Patterns and Responses. Illegal leisure revisited: changing patterns of alcohol and drug use in adolescents and young adults. Smith M, Smith P. The problem of drug prohibition for drug users: a Mertonian analysis of everyday experience. Electron J Sociol. Keene J. An international social work perspective on drug misuse problems and solutions: reviewing implications for practice. J Soc Work. Feeney K, Labate B. The expansion of Brazilian Ayahuasca religions: law, culture and locality prohibition. In: Labate B, Cavnar C, editors. Religious freedom and human rights: regulating traditional use. Berlin: Springer; Whiteacre K, Pepinsky H. Controlling drug use. Crim Justice Policy Rev. Pavarin R. First consumers, then socially integrated: results of a study on Italian drug users who had never turned to public or private addiction services. Subst Use Misuse. Focusing on abuse, not use: a proposed new direction for US drug policy. Bandow D. From fighting the drug war to protecting the right to use drugs. In: McMahon F, editor. Towards a worldwide index of human freedom. Canada: Fraser Institut; The case for international guidelines on human rights and drug control. Health Hum Rights J. Szasz T. Nuestro derecho a las drogas. En defensa de un mercado libre. Barcelona: Anagrama; Download references. Gaia, Portugal. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Despite under the leadership of the corresponding author, all authors contributed equally to the production of the manuscript. The author s read and approved the final manuscript. All authors declare that there are no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work; there are no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 16 , 59 Download citation. Accepted : 22 June Published : 17 July Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Download ePub. Abstract Portugal decriminalized the public and private use, acquisition, and possession of all drugs in ; adopting an approach focused on public health rather than public-order priorities. Background Manichean creeds have long dominated the ideology behind drug policy. Oscillating between public order and public health — Portugal joined the War on Drugs in the seventies, even though drug use was not, at the time, a relevant social problem in the country, nor did the legislator distinguish, until then, between drug use and drug dealing. Full size image. The decriminalization law and the Portuguese drug policy model — The PDPM is inextricable from its socio-historical background. Footnote 3 Commissions for the dissuasion of drug addiction The Commissions - under the responsibility of the Ministry of Health - may represent the most groundbreaking feature of the PDPM. Harm reduction Certainly the PDPM facet that has raised the most opposition, harm reduction policies expanded as a direct result of the decriminalization law. Footnote 7 Despite the fact that the vast majority of drug users are non-problematic, services are, with some notable exceptions, mainly focused on opioid substitution treatment partially serving purposes related with public order and on needle and syringe exchange with public health preoccupations underneath , thus configuring the weak version of harm reduction: the one that advocates mainly health rights, as opposed to its strong version , which fully recognizes the right to use drugs \[ 33 \]. Conclusions Portuguese drug policy has been, since , under great scrutiny, due to the decriminalization approach. Implications for practice Since , there has been an increase of criminal sanctions for drug use. Footnote 10 Thirdly, regarding harm reduction policies, it might be observed that these are somehow still oscillating between the concerns that make justice and health priorities. The quest for human rights Following Portuguese sociocultural transformation and the diversification of drug use patterns, observed later in Portugal, but somehow identical to main European trends, drug use is escaping its label as something that unfolds at the margins of society. Availability of data and materials In references. Notes Positive results include a reduction in mortality and infections associated with dependent behaviour and, among youth, a reduction in the prevalence of recent cannabis use, a postponement of the age of initiation and an increase in perceptions of related-risks \[ 17 \]. Google Scholar Quintas J. Accessed 10 mar Google Scholar Cabral T. Article Google Scholar Laqueur H. Article Google Scholar Agra C. Google Scholar Hughes C. Article Google Scholar Woods J. Google Scholar Costa E. Article Google Scholar Zinberg N. Google Scholar Levine H. Article Google Scholar Tupper K. Article Google Scholar Hunt N. Article Google Scholar Roe G. Google Scholar Agra C. Google Scholar Anjos P. Article Google Scholar Barbosa J. Google Scholar Fonseca C. Google Scholar Cruz O. Article Google Scholar Pavarin R. Article Google Scholar Bandow D. Google Scholar Szasz T. Google Scholar Download references. Funding Not applicable. View author publications. Ethics declarations Consent to publication Not applicable. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Competing interests All authors declare that there are no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work; there are no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work. About this article. Copy to clipboard. Contact us General enquiries: journalsubmissions springernature.

Buying Ecstasy online in Fez