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Key words : coat protein , gene flow , phylogeny , TMV , Tobamovirus. The highest incidence for tobamovirus infection in each surveyed host species is shown in bold and was highest for tomato. Number of infected samples over number of samples collected for each crop. The incidence and distribution of Tobacco mosaic virus TMV and related tobamoviruses was determined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on 1, symptomatic horticultural crops and asymptomatic weed samples collected from 78 highly infected fields in the major horticultural crop-producing areas in 17 provinces throughout Iran. The results were confirmed by host range studies and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The overall incidence of infection by these viruses in symptomatic plants was Phylogenetic analysis of all known TMV CP genes showed three clades on the basis of nucleotide sequences with all Iranian isolates distinctly clustered in clade II. Analysis using the complete CP amino acid sequence showed one clade with two subgroups, IA and IB, with Iranian isolates in both subgroups. The nucleotide diversity within each sub-group was very low, but higher between the two clades. No correlation was found between genetic distance and geographical origin or host species of isolation. Statistical analyses suggested a negative selection and demonstrated the occurrence of gene flow from the isolates in other clades to the Iranian population. Iran, with an area of 1. Horticultural crop farming is carried out in most of the geographical regions in Iran, except for the deserts and mountains. The climate of Iran is conducive to the growing of many horticultural crops such as broad beans Vicia faba L. Zucchini , cucumber Cucumis sativus L. Such crop production in the field may be either rain-fed or under irrigation on large scale or small holder commercial farms. Iran is among the main producers of horticulural crops in the world with an approximate production of 1,, tonnes yearly Faostat, Cucurbits and tomato are major horticultural crops in Iran Faostat, Viral diseases of horticultural crops cause important economic impact worldwide. Among all other viral diseases of such crops, diseases caused by tobamoviruses are often the most destructive and difficult to control Alonso et al. On the basis of genome organization and phylogenetic clustering, tobamoviruses are classified into three sub-groups Lartey et al. Several tobamoviruses that previously were considered as TMV strains, are now classified as members of new species of the genus Tobamovirus on the basis of differences in host range, serological properties and amino acid sequences of encoded virus proteins Antignus et al. TMV is the type member of the genus Tobamovirus. TMV can be transmitted by mechanical inoculation, grafting, contact between plants and by seed, but not by any known vector Broadbent, ; Hollings and Huttinga, Tobamoviruses collectively have a very wide host range and cause serious economic impact and significantly yield losses in many crops such as brassicas, cucurbits, solanaceous crops and different ornamental plants such as chrysanthemums Chrysanthemum indicum L. Infected plants often show different types of symptoms such as malformations, mosaic and stunting on leaves, flowers, and fruit. There are many different strains identified for TMV, some of which are capable of overcoming of their hosts resistance Padgett and Beachy, Regardless of the importance of field-grown horticultural crops, there is little information available on the incidence and distribution of TMV and its genetic diversity in cultivated crops in Iran. Thus, in this study we determined the incidence of TMV in plants showing symptoms in commercial fields in the main important provinces for horticultural crop cultivation in Iran, and also determined the genetic diversity of the isolates detected in the surveyed regions. We also detected TMV in some weed species growing in and around crop fields which may be potential reservoir hosts for maintaining TMV in these fields. The information obtained is required as the first step toward the search for control strategies of virus diseases in horticulural crops in Iran. Samples of horticultural crop species including bean, cabbage Brassica oleracea var. Overall, 78 fields were surveyed and samples 20—30 samples per field were collected during the growing season. The fields were randomly selected using a predetermined distance criterion, where distance between the fields ranged from 10 to 30 km. A sample consisted of two symptomatic leaves per plant. Viral-like symptoms observed included dwarfing, mosaic, mottling, yellowing, leaf malformation, necrosis of the leaves and stems and vein clearing. In addition, leaf samples were also collected from different asymptomatic weed species belonging to 12 different botanical families within visited horticultural crop fields in the surveyed provinces for the serological detection of TMV and related tobamoviruses Table 2. Weed samples were collected from around the bases of crops showing symptoms characteristic of infection by TMV. Mature leaf blades were tested in duplicate using double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay DAS—ELISA , with coating antibodies against TMV and related tobamoviruses, as well as alkaline phosphatase conjugates obtained from Agdia Agdia, Inc. Leaf samples showing symptoms associated with virus disease and with positive reaction in ELISA that were collected from Alburz, East Azarbaijan, Fars, Golestan and Tehran provinces, which contain the main horticultural crop cultivation regions of Iran, were selected and further evaluated in a host range study. The virus isolates were purified biologically through a single local lesion technique repeated twice on Chenopodium quinoa plants, and then transmitted mechanically to Nicotiana tabacum cv. White Burley for virus propagation according to the published protocol Adkins et al. Extracts from the systemically-infected tobacco plants were then used as a source of biologically-purified virus and inoculated mechanically to C. Mashhad cowpea and Vicia faba faba bean; family Fabaceae , N. Virginia, N. White Burley and S. Table 3. Specifically, 1 g of leaf tissue was ground in 2 ml of 0. The extract was rubbed onto leaves of the above herbaceous plants, previously dusted with mesh Carborundum. The experiment was conducted twice using at least three plants for each inoculation. The final symptom reading was conducted 4 weeks post inoculation, and systemic leaf tissues from each individual plant were collected to confirm the presence of virus by ELISA. The presence of the virus in asymptomatic plants was verified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction RT-PCR. Total RNAs were isolated from leaves of symptomatic crop plants, asymptomatic weed species and indicator plants N. Specific detection of tobamoviruses species was also performed with a semi-nested PCR method according to Letschert et al. The amplified fragment was expected to be ca. PCR products were checked on gels of 1. Phylogenetic analysis of the five representative Iranian TMV isolates was conducted by comparing separately the nucleotides nt of the whole CP gene and the nt that included the flanking regions of the CP-coding region with the comparable sequences of other TMV isolates from GenBank. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred by using the Maximum Likelihood method based on the Kimura 2-parameter model with bootstraps replicates to estimate node significances Kimura, , using a CP gene sequence of Odontoglossum ringspot virus ORSV as an outgroup. This comparison extended to deduced amino acid sequences. Analyses were performed with the program MEGA 5. Using this software and the Tamuraparameter nucleotide substitution model Tamura, , the nucleotide distances and diversities were assessed. Genetic differentiation and the gene flow level between subpopulations also were evaluated by the statistical test F st Weir and Cockerham, F st ranges from 0 to 1 for undifferentiated to fully differentiated populations, respectively. The statistical tests for estimation of F st were performed by DnaSP version 5. Of 1, crop leaf samples showing symptoms that were tested by ELISA, tobamoviruses were found in samples The results showed that 53 out of 78 fields surveyed had tobamovirus infections, ranging from 1. Apart from Qazvin and Khuzestan provinces, tobamoviruses were distributed among the fifteen surveyed provinces with higher and lower disease incidence in Golestan and Isfahan provinces respectively Fig. There were differences in the relative incidence of tobamovirus infection among the horticultural crops tested. The overall picture showed that tobamoviruses were distributed mostly on solanaceous crops with an average incidence of Tobamovirus infection rates in crop samples showing symptoms, in decreasing order, were tomato Tobamoviruses were not detected in radish. Symptomatic plants affected by tobamovirus infection were observed in most of the fields surveyed; however, the incidence varied according to the plant species and the geographical regions. Tobamovirus infection was characterized mainly by leaf and fruit mosaics. Plants infected with tobamoviruses showed severe stunting, malformation, yellow spotting on leaves, vein yellowing, mosaic patterns of light and dark green on the leaves and fruits, twisting of leaves, shoestring, interveinal and systemic chlorosis, leaf roll and necrosis. Twenty-six weed species belonging to 12 families were tested for the presence of tobamoviruses. There were seven weed species representing five families Asteraceae , Chenopodiaceae , Convolvulaceae , Fabaceae and Malvaceae in which tobamoviruses were detected in one or more locations Table 2 , attesting to the wide natural host range of these viruses. Tobamoviruses were detected serologically in two samples of C. Table 2. Tobamoviruses were distributed mostly on weed species in the Chenopodiaceae family None of the infected weeds showed virus symptoms. Infection of weed plants with tobamoviruses were confirmed following mechanical inoculation to N. Samsun nn, N. White Burley, and P. Tobamoviruses caused necrotic local lesions, mild mosaic, vein clearing and leaf deformation on different inoculated indicator plant species. The results of host range studies and the symptoms associated with virus infection on indicator plants were generally similar to those of earlier reports Brunt et al. The tobamovirus isolates, which were shown subsequently to be TMV isolates, were grouped into five pathological clusters represented by isolates TA, TV, TM, G42 and PU1 based on differences in symptoms on host plants and nucleotide sequences of their CP genes. Of the 10 indicator plants tested eight species from four families, including three varieties of tobacco , eight plants six species from three plant families developed symptoms after inoculation with the above Iranian TMV isolates. All five TMV isolates induced necrotic local lesions on inoculated leaves of faba bean and N. Mashhad plants Table 3. Infections of cucumber with the PU1 isolate remained symptomless. This isolate elicited interveinal chlorosis in cowpea. Infection of cucumber with the PU1 isolate was confirmed by using RT-PCR and by mechanical inoculation onto other indicator plants data not shown. Virginia and necrotic local lesion in P. Samsun nn and tomato. To confirm the serological diagnoses, RT-PCR was done using samples from naturally infected crop plants samples that positively reacted with the anti-tobamovirus antiserum in the ELISA test and selected weed species 12 samples. No PCR products were amplified from healthy plants. Plants with mixed infections showed more severe symptoms compared to those just singly infected with TMV. The maximum and minimum nucleotide sequence identities of the entire CP gene nt between the Iranian isolates and those deposited previously in GenBank ranged from 93 to Phylogenetic analysis based on the nucleotide sequences of the CP gene resulted in classification of TMV isolates to three major clades with high bootstrap support in which isolates in clade I were divided into two subgroups Fig. The phylogenetic tree based on analysis of the CP amino acid sequences showed a different pattern compared to that of the nucleotide sequences of the CP genes Fig. Here, the sequences of the amino acids of the CP gene formed two subgroups radiating from one large clade. It should be noted that in these analyses we have not used all isolates from the GenBank that were labeled as TMV. The pairwise nucleotide distances between isolates within a clade were 0. This may indicate that TMV could be classified into three genotypes. No correlation was observed between the genetic variation and the geographical origin from which the isolates were obtained. However, in comparing the genetic variation between the isolates in each clade, it seems there is a correlation between genetic variations and the species composing each genotype. Nucleotide diversity was also high and about 0. To estimate the extent of genetic differentiation, we measured the coefficient F st , which is also an estimate of gene flow Weir and Hill, However F st values were lower than 0. The F st values were lower than 0. In recent years, there have been reports of increasing importance of virus diseases in horticultural crops in Iran Bananej et al. In these earlier studies, the distribution and incidence of viruses infecting horticultural crops were studied by serological methods, but in none of these cases was TMV studied. Although the presence of TMV has been reported in tomato, tobacco and soybean from Iran Golnaraghi et al. Precise identification of TMV and knowledge about its distribution, genetic variation and alternative host sources in such crops will allow farm advisors and growers to make better management decisions. To achieve this, in the present study we sought to determine the incidence and distribution of TMV on economically important crops in the major horticultural crop-producing areas in 17 provinces throughout Iran. Our results showed that This incidence, which is limited to the field plants showing symptoms, can be considered low if compared with that of other countries. For example, the incidence of TMV in pepper fields in Turkey, neighboring the north-eastern region of Iran, was found to be Widespread prevalence of TMV in most crop-growing areas of Iran would implicate its major impact on crop production throughout the country. There was a clear-cut correlation between TMV incidence, geographical distribution and the type of vegetable hosts. Although TMV is not considered an economically important bean virus and is not common in bean fields in Iran, we detected TMV infected bean plants in Golestan Table 1 , which may reflect a very high inoculum in this province. Previously, TMV had been reported from different cultivars of tobacco with an incidence rate of The relatively high incidence and prevalence of TMV may be related to the presence of tobacco fields near horticultural crops in these provinces. However, this relationship has yet to be confirmed. TMV infection was confined to the fields with a history of solanaceous plant production in these regions. It is possible that failure to detect and subsequently eradicate TMV from these farms has led to its persistence in these areas. The virus can survive for many years in dead, dried plant material, which makes it difficult to inactivate Broadbent, Plants that remain in the soil may harbor mechanically transmitted virus and act as a source of infection for the next crops, especially where the susceptible crops are grown in the same fields yearly Hu et al. TMV was serologically detected previously in C. However, the natural occurrence of TMV on C. Primary infection of horticultural crops from overwintering sources of the virus can be a contributing factor in the increasing virus incidence in different plantations. Having knowledge of weed reservoirs of TMV is essential for understanding the virus epidemiology and must be understood for successful control through sanitation practices. In our survey, most weed species found to be infected with TMV were symptomless. Previous research also has shown that many TMV-infected herbaceous weed hosts often do not display foliar symptoms Shiel and Castello, Nonetheless, further studies comprising more sampling of weed with regard to the symptom status are necessary to improve our knowledge of virus spread in the region. The number of solanaceous plants shown to be infected with TMV was relatively high compared to collected cucurbit plant species Table 1. Solanaceous crops incur the most significant losses from TMV-induced disease Hollings and Huttinga, TMV is seed-borne mostly in solanaceous crops and they may spread during transplanting and harvesting after primary infections via infected seeds. Some growers in Iran use their own non-certified seed produced locally and this may contribute to the spread of TMV in these crops. It is noteworthy that TMV, a virus hitherto unreported from cucurbit plants in Iran, prevailed in having high rates of incidence in two cucurbit species watermelon and zucchini in the surveyed regions. The low incidence of this virus in Iran may suggest that it is a new pathogen in the country. The host ranges of different TMV isolates collected from different hosts and regions were similar to what has been previously reported for TMV Chung et al. The five TMV pathology clusters studied in this research showed obvious differences in the symptom development on C. Mashhad, N. White Burley and tomato. Differences in symptom development on C. Virginia observed after inoculation with TMV-PU1 pumpkin isolate distinguished this isolate from the tomato infecting isolates. By contrast, the results also showed that three tomato-infecting TMV isolates TA, TV and TM , collected from different geographical regions, differed in symptom developments on the indicator plants. Many different strains of TMV are present in nature, which are different in biological properties Van Regenmortel, The work of Aldaoud et al. This is in contrast to the results obtained by phylogenetic analysis of Iranian isolates that showed low genetic variations in the CP gene nucleotide sequence, which suggests the negative selection acting on this gene. We found significant evidence for negative selection in the CP gene of a large subset of TMV isolates. In our data set, most parts of the ORF were determined to be under negative selection for the Iranian isolates. The negative selection in the CP gene would result in a higher protein tolerance against mutation and pressure selection. This may indicate that TMV CP is not flexible in the interaction with other proteins or has little specific interaction with the host or potential vectors. This result also supports the hypothesis that the CP was undergoing intensive evolution. Previously, negative selection was reported for the worldwide ToMV isolates on the basis of the CP gene sequence Rangel et al. However, the results indicated a low genetic diversity between isolates within clades and high diversity between the three clades, suggesting effects of selection under different selection pressures. This conclusion has been demonstrated for resistance-breaking isolates of ToMV that overcome the resistance of the Tm-1 gene Pelham et al. Phylogenetic analysis resulted in a tree with three main parts. Iranian TMV-crop isolates obtained from eggplant, pumpkin and tomato, respectively were all clustered together in a distinct branch. No branching pattern based on differences in the host source was found among the TMV-crop isolates studied. All TMV isolates which are distributed in Asia, Africa, Europe and America were located in one clade which could be divided into two subgroups with a branching pattern specific to geographical distribution. These indicate no clear correlation between CP sequence variation and the geographical origins of the virus isolates, in contrast to the results obtained by Jung et al. Previous studies elucidated that TMV isolates may be altered by different temperatures Jones and Dawson, or in different plant species Yarwood, Our results showed that the diversity values are high between the three clades, which may suggest that the populations in each clade could be derived from a single origin. Considering the low number of isolates in clade II, it is possible that the viruses in clade II might represent introductions that have occurred recently. The observed low diversity and the determination that TMV isolates from different host species had the same predominant genotype suggest that host species do not contribute to differentiation of the virus population, as observed with other plant viruses Garcia-Arenal et al. No correlation was observed between the genetic distance and the geographical origin or the host species from which the isolates were obtained. Low genetic variation among geographically distant isolates also has been reported for other tobamoviruses Fraile et al. The apparent absence of a natural vector might have prevented population changes and might account for the low genetic diversity observed. However, the possibility of subjection to host selection may not be conceivable for the Iranian isolates, since they were collected from different hosts Table 2. In this study, the statistical test F st was used to assess genetic differentiation and the gene flow level between clades and subgroups. Interestingly, in most cases where Iranian isolates were compared against other geographical groups in subgroup A for example, Europe and the Americas the F st values were low but when pairwise comparisons were repeated using the Iranian isolates in clade II and isolates in other clades, the F st values were high. This result, together with the phylogenetic analyses, demonstrates the occurrence of gene flow from other isolates to the Iranian population. Our conclusions are consistent with previous research on ToMV Rangel et al. Overall, a high degree of differentiation was noted between three clades. It may suggest that TMV populations in each clade went through frequent bottlenecks when colonizing new habitats and members of each founder group were from similar population sources. In conclusion, TMV isolates grouped into three main clades or genotypes worldwide and in combination with the recent work of Rangel et al. The genetic structure of TMV populations in different horticultural crops has not been analyzed in other Asian countries and it is not known if the Iranian isolates are present in other countries. Nonetheless, to control TMV infection, sanitary measures should be implemented to minimize TMV dispersal through plant material between countries. These results might provide useful tools to study the interplay between the evolutionary and epidemiological processes acting on TMV population and could help us to design some efficient control strategies for TMV emergence. Map of Iran showing the location of 17 provinces shaded where field-grown horticultural crops were surveyed for tobamovirus infection during the to growing seasons. Two provinces in which tobamovirus infection was not detected are shown spotted in the map. A , Lanes 1 to 4 represent amplified products from naturally infected bean, cabbage, pumpkin and radish samples, respectively; B and C , Lanes 1 to 3 represent amplified products for naturally infected tomato, eggplant and cucumber samples, respectively; D , Lane 1 represent amplified products for a naturally infected tomato sample. Bootstrap percentages of clades are shown along internal branches of trees derived from bootstrap-resampled data sets. Branch lengths represent genetic distances. Detailed information for each TMV isolate concerning the country where it was isolated and the accession number is found in the phylogenetic trees. Table 1. Incidence of tobamoviruses on horticultural crops collected from the main provinces of cultivation in Iran. Incidence of tobamovirus infection on selected weed species. Symptom development on indicator plant species after inoculation with Tobacco mosaic virus TMV isolates detected in Iran. Table 4. Accession numbers, host and origin of reported TMV isolates used for phylogenetic comparison of coat protein gene sequence in this study. Table 5. Biological and molecular characterization of a novel tobamovirus with a unique host range. Plant Dis — Rapid, random evolution of the genetic structure of replicating tobacco mosaic virus populations. Intervirology — Characterization of a strain of Tobacco mosaic virus from Petunia. Phytopathol — First report of Tobacco mild green mosaic virus infecting tomato in Iran. New Dis. Rep First report of Tomato mosaic virus in eggplant in Iran. Plant Path S4. Tomato mosaic virus in Iran. Plant Pathol —4. Nucleic Acids Res — A tobamovirus causing heavy losses in protected pepper crops in Spain. Biological and molecular characterization of a new cucurbit-infecting Tobamovirus. Phytopathology — Occurrence of viruses in field-grown pepper crops and some of their reservoir weed hosts in Samsun, Turkey. Phytoparasitica — First report of Cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus in Iran causing yellows on four cucurbit crops. Plant Dis Banane, K and Vahdat, A Identification, distribution and incidence of viruses in field-grown cucurbit crops of Iran. Medit — Broadbent, LH The epidemiology of tomato mosaic. Seed-transmission of TMV. Biol — Genet — Cherian, S and Muniyapppa, V ELISA based survey and host range of tomato mosaic tobamovirus. Virol — Indexing of leaf and seed samples of tomato and bell pepper for tobamoviruses. Genome analysis and characterization of a tobacco mosaic virus isolate infecting balsam Impatiens balsamina. Plant Pathol. J — Characteristics of the micro-plate method of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of plant viruses. Culver, JN Tobacco mosaic virus assembly and disassembly: Determinants in pathogenicity and resistance. Dizadji, A and Shahraeen, N Occurrence, distribution and seasonal changes of viruses infecting common bean in north-western Iran. Plant Protec — Statistical Databases. Preliminary production data. Genetic diversity in tobacco mild green mosaic tobamovirus infecting the wild plant Nicotiana glauca. Virology — Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations. Genetics — Variability and genetic structure of plant virus populations. Nucleotide sequence of tobacco mosaic virus RNA. USA — Occurrence and relative incidence of viruses infecting soybeans in Iran. Hollings, M and Huttinga, H Tomato mosaic virus. Transmission, movement and inactivation of Cymbidium mosaic and Odontoglossum ringspot viruses. Stability of mutations conferring temperature sensitivity on tobacco mosaic virus. Characterization of Tobacco mosaic virus isolated from potato showing yellow leaf mosaic and stunting symptoms in Korea. Virus diseases in the tobacco fields of Gilan and West Azarbaijan provinces of Iran. Sci — Kimura, M A simple method for estimating evolutionary rate of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences. Evol — Microbiol — Tobamovirus evolution: gene overlaps, recombination, and taxonomic implications. Method — Surprising results from a search for effective disinfectants for Tobacco mosaic virus contaminated tools. Librado, P and Rozas, J Bioinformatics — Occurrence, distribution, and relative incidence of seven viruses infecting greenhouse-grown cucurbits in Iran. Incidence of viruses infecting tomato and their natural hosts in the southeast and central regions of Iran. Brasil — Nei, M and Kumar, S Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetics. Oxford University Press, New York. Kazakh strains of tobacco mosaic virus: two strains with potentially destabilizing amino acid substitutions in the coat protein. Plant Path — Analysis of a tobacco mosaic virus strain capable of overcoming N gene-mediated resistance. Plant Cell — Improved tools for biological sequence comparison. The establishment of a new strain of tobacco mosaic virus resulting from the use of resistant varieties of tomato. Appl Biol — Incidence and distribution of important viral pathogens in some Iranian potato fields. Genetic variability and evolutionary analyses of the coat protein gene of Tomato mosaic virus. Virus Genes — Variability and evolution of the plant RNA virus Pepper mild mottle virus. Saitou, N and Nei, M The neighbor-joining method: A new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Detection of tobacco mosaic and tobacco ringspot viruses in herbaceous and woody plants near virus-infected white ash trees in central New York. Identification of some viruses causing mosaic on lettuce and characterization of Lettuce mosaic virus from Tehran Province in Iran. Res — Tajima, F Statistical method for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis by DNA polymorphism. Tamura, K MEGA5: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance, and maximum parsimony methods. Van Regenmortel, MHV Tobacco mosaic virus. Antigenic structure. In: The Plant Viruses , 2:eds. Structure of Ribgrass mosaic virus at 2. Estimating F -statistics for the analysis of population structure. Evolution — Estimating F -statistics. Yarwood, CE Host passage effect with plant viruses. Virus Res — Zaitlin, M Elucidation of the genome organization of tobacco mosaic virus. R Soc. B Biol. White burley. Vigna unguiculata cv. ORSV b.

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Email: luciana. Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug worldwide. From an occupational perspective, its use is paradoxical in that although it can be harmful to health and has criminal consequences, it can also promote well-being. This study examined predictors of well-being to determine the effects of marijuana use and its prohibition on the daily lives of Brazilian adults. This cross-sectional study used an anonymous online questionnaire with a final sample of respondents. Utilizing logistic regression, variables were selected pertaining to use and prohibition risks, benefits of use, and harm reduction associated with the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. Social class, race, gender, and generation were predictors of well-being associated with marijuana use and its prohibition, indicating an interaction between different dimensions involving the use of illicit substances. Identifying the effects of the use and prohibition of marijuana in promoting well-being, from the conception of drug use as a non-sanctioned occupation, can broaden the understanding of this complex human phenomenon, with health and criminal repercussions, subsidizing the development of approaches more equitable and adequate into occupational therapy to reduce personal and social harm. Keywords: Cannabis, drug use, occupational therapy, substance use, non-sanctioned occupation, health. Since its inclusion as a concern of public order, expressed at the II International Opium Conference in Geneva by a representative, 2 Brazilian public policy proposals have been dominated by the negative effects of its use. These effects were later consolidated globally with its inclusion on the list of dangerous substances in the report of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Concurrently, since the mids, advances and scientific findings have intensified debates on the use of the cannabis plant, especially after the isolation of its main active ingredients 4 and the identification of the endocannabinoid system 5 which has promoted the human dimension of solutions to their potential as health issues. With increasing reports of positive effects on well-being, prohibitionist and punitive models that guide current drug policies in the field of public safety are being questioned as they do not reduce the supply and demand for drugs, 7 limit access to health care due to the stigma associated with drug users, 17 or greatly impact the prison system, 18 and have an inequitable impact on specific population groups, such as migrants, blacks, women and the poor. The illicit status of cannabis has been reviewed globally, demystifying the prohibitionist pillars that culminate in the incarceration and mortality of those involved in the so-called War on Drugs, 20 with disproportional impacts on some specific ethnic groups. The non-medical use of marijuana has also been legalized in Uruguay, Canada, the Netherlands, some jurisdictions in the United States, and Mexico the debate on its legalization is well underway. Since , when many elements of African culture were criminalized with strong racist and eugenicist biases, Brazil was one of the first nations to prohibit marijuana use. Additionally, 2. Recently, a Brazilian cross-sectional study of a non-probabilistic sample 31 involving more than adults recreational cannabis users and non-users assessed their quality of life, subjective well-being, anxiety, and depression with standardized scales using an online survey about cannabis and other substance use. The highest scores for quality of life were observed among habitual cannabis users, followed by occasional users, whereas both non-users and dysfunctional users presented less favorable scores. Subjective measures of well-being were higher among habitual and occasional users than non-users, whereas dysfunctional users were most adversely affected. Poor quality of life, depression, and anxiety were more prevalent among dysfunctional cannabis users, but non-users reported more depression or anxiety symptoms and a lower quality of life than occasional and habitual users. In , the World Health Organization WHO defined health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. This definition recognized the concept of well-being as a key component of health of the individual in a comprehensive and holistic manner, influenced not only by individual characteristics but also by the social conditions in which people find themselves and the environment in which they reside. The dominant discourse in occupational therapy and occupational science literature on the relationship between occupation and health and well-being is positive. Conversely, discussions on the potential negative health or well-being implications of occupational engagement remain vague and limited. These authors proposed that occupations should be conceptualized as neutral, and that the health-promoting and illness-producing aspects are dependent on the physical, cultural, social, historical, and political contexts in which an individual engages in an occupation and the meaning that individual assigns to that occupation. Looking critically at the realm of healthcare, drug use and drug abuse have been deemed undesirable behaviors by society, 46 and typically labeled as problematic. Stewart and Fischer 47 acknowledged the complexity of occupation and the possibility of engaging in a profession that can affect the lives and well-being of individuals both positively and negatively through occupations, such as drug use. Thus, even for individuals with drug addiction, time spent in occupations that support the need to acquire drugs can create a role, a sense of identity, and organize their lives, allowing them to connect with, adapt to, and feel in control of their surroundings. In the occupational science field, studies have pointed out that viewing drug use as distinct from substance abuse, problematic use, dependence, or addiction, focusing on occupation can a stimulate new ways of understanding substance use and its relationship with the quality of life and meaningful experiences 50 ; b facilitate a better understanding of how people employ alternatives to achieve desired occupational outcomes 49 ; and c help identify factors that encourage and constrain use, expanding approaches to addressing substance use that go beyond the individual to social and institutional contexts. This attention can help to diversify the understanding of the occupation itself to challenge dualisms, given the politically constructed nature of all occupations. It also becomes an intervention tool centered on the needs of individuals, groups, and collectives, seeking to promote greater participation and autonomy, expressing the construction and transformation of concrete reality, encompassing adversities, decision making, and forging ways of being, living, and acting. This study aimed to identify a the effects of marijuana use and its prohibition on the daily lives of adults in Brazil, recognizing different types, justifications, and motivations for use, and b to examine the predictors of well-being for the characteristics of marijuana users. In this exploratory cross-sectional study, an anonymous online questionnaire was used on a non-probabilistic sample. The analytical sample comprised respondents. The socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents were used to select variables pertaining to the risks of use and prohibition, the benefits of use, and harm reduction. An analysis of logistic regression was performed. In collaboration with 12 specialists, including researchers in the fields of drugs and occupational therapy as well as representatives of organized social movements, an online and anonymous questionnaire was developed for data collection. This technique is used to establish consensus when no unanimity of opinion exists on a given topic or innovative topics, being used in health research, for clinical decisions, and to support decisions in the daily practices of health services. The expert panel was comprised of all who were invited and was recorded through the Google Meet platform. The consensus meeting was conducted by the primary researcher together with the assistant researcher, a scientific initiation student, an occupational therapist in the role of observer and annotator, and a researcher in the field. Considering that the marijuana user population can be criminalized in Brazil, insufficient information exists from which to draw an accurate sample. However, despite acknowledging the limits and restrictions on generalizability, probabilistic analyses were performed with the aim of seeking possible predictors of marijuana use to promote well-being for the characteristics of marijuana users. For the sample calculation, the variable marijuana use to promote well-being was used, with an expected prevalence of In this course, The link to the survey form was widely disseminated on social media networks, including groups on WhatsApp, university student groups on Facebook , groups for the legalization of marijuana, and Instagram stories. In addition, researchers and partner organizations were provided with the survey link and asked to disseminate it broadly, ensuring a good reach. A total of responses were obtained. There were no exclusion criteria. Two respondents who did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded because they did not use marijuana. Viewing marijuana use for well-being as a complex and significant occupation, in interaction with the set of forces present in various daily lives, we chose 6 response variables: a 2 variables about the effects of use; b 2 variables about what we consider the effects of prohibition; and c 2 variables about harm reduction. These variables are viewed as important dimensions of well-being, and relevant to the goals of occupational therapy, whose significance and experience are always in relation to the forces of power and social hierarchy. For the statistical analysis, the categorical variables were described by their absolute and relative frequencies. To study these associations, univariate logistic regression models were first performed, and then multivariate logistic regression models were fitted. Variables without statistical significance were excluded, one by one, until the final model included only statistically significant variables. The R Core Team 56 software was used. The qualitative variables were summarized as absolute and relative frequencies in the descriptive analysis. Despite the small number of self-declared Indigenous peoples among the respondents, we believe it is important to maintain a separate category for them in this work, as such information was not included in the previous study on marijuana use for recreational purposes in Brazil. We emphasize that the small sample size had no impact on the estimates of the effects of the logistic regression models used in the data analysis. Some respondents chose more than 1 category. Therapeutic use was justified either through personal recognition of the benefits, reports of benefits by friends, or referrals from medical and non-medical professionals. Twenty-seven percent of users indicated that they used marijuana to reduce the consumption of alcohol or other licit substances, Regarding health problems, the respondents reported using marijuana to alleviate anxiety Finally, users who had used marijuana for a longer period were more likely to use it for fun than those who had used it for less than a year. Regarding religion, Catholics and Evangelicals were less likely than atheists and agnostics to fail at their jobs due to substance abuse. People who live with friends or alone were more likely to experience feeling stoned than those who lived with family members. People who use it more than once a month and for more than a year were more likely to feel stoned and unable to fulfill their tasks than those who used it for less than a year, once a month, or occasionally. Regarding gender, compared to the feminine, users who self-identified their gender as masculine have higher odds. As for the time of use, the more time spent using marijuana, the greater the chance of having problems with the police than for users with less than a year of use. Likewise, individuals who used marijuana more than once a month or daily had higher odds than users who used it less than once a month. The age of first use was associated in all age ranges, decreasing, with the mode of obtaining marijuana in a dangerous way, compared with those who used it for the first time under the age of 11, meaning the higher the age of first use, the less dangerous the way used to obtain it. The factors associated with this variable were age, education, frequency, and duration of use, as shown in Table 6. Level of education was shown to be positively associated with use at strategic times, with those who had completed high school more likely to use at strategic times than users who did not study or who only completed elementary school. For frequency of use, users with more intense use using it more than once a month or daily were more likely to use marijuana at strategic times compared to those who used it only once per month. Those users who self-identified their gender as feminine had lower odds of daily use compared to who self-identified as masculine. As for the age at first use, people who started using marijuana between the ages of 16 and 29 were less likely to use it daily. Epidemiological data from the Third National Survey on Drug Use in Brazil 30 revealed that the highest prevalence of regular marijuana use was among to year-olds with a postgraduate degree or higher residing in the capitals of the southeast region. A study on cannabis use frequency and use-related impairment among African American and white users supports that although participants did not differ in their cannabis use frequency or cannabis-related impairment, they appeared to use cannabis for different reasons. More specifically, social motives were differentially associated with cannabis-related impairment as a function of race. Although almost half of the respondents claimed their marijuana use was therapeutic, only a few had a medical prescription, even if the marijuana use was being reported to alleviate health problems like anxiety, insomnia, depression, chronic pain, and addiction. In the current study, we identified a therapeutic use of marijuana that went beyond the medical indications for marijuana use, including menstrual cramps, headaches, ADHD, and muscle spasms. Reducing the consumption of alcohol, other licit substances, and psychotropic drugs are among the motivations for use. The authors maintain that such separation has created a division that does not correspond to the experience, meaning, and function of drug use by the different people living in diverse contexts and cultures. The concept of occupation must expand to include complexities experienced in daily life, such as engaging in the activities with which people occupy themselves as well as those they are prevented from doing. It must also include an understanding of the social places people occupy or are prevented from occupying. Considering marijuana as an occupation, we recognize its potential for multiple meanings that are socially constructed and influenced by individual processes. We emphasize the importance of the generational factor, which indicates those over the age of 30 are nine times more likely to use recreational marijuana than those over the age of Although epidemiologically, marijuana use is more related to young people, some reported experiences seem to indicate that low-income young people may not have access to other recreational activities that do not involve drug use. An analysis of the scientific literature on the use of psychoactive substances among older adults revealed that alcohol is the most commonly used psychoactive substance in this age group, followed by drug use and a gradual increase in the use of illicit substances. In this study, older adult users of psychoactive substances were predominantly male, had low levels of education and income, were unemployed, unmarried, lived alone, and had organic and psychological comorbidities. Another study that sought to comprehend the significance that older adults ascribe to drug use and was limited to older adults being monitored by health services for people with drug problems identified the need to form relationships or occupy space as a motivation for drug use, such as voids resulting from effectual losses. Respondents reported using marijuana to stimulate creativity, manage stress, sleep better, promote well-being, and relax, among other reasons identified as positive effects by the researchers. Kiepek and Beagan 48 investigated the motivations for substance use among professionals and students in professional programs in Canada who used 1 or more non-prescription psychoactive substances and discovered that substance use was advantageous for relieving pain, enhancing sleep, supplying energy, and engaging in daily activities. Some individuals discovered that substance use reduced anxiety, allowing them to better manage occupational demands, enhance performance, or served as a reward for completing tasks. Sometimes, substance use is an occupation in and of itself, such as drinking alcohol or going out for coffee. Occasionally, a substance is used to enhance the performance of another occupation, such as taking erectile dysfunction medication to enhance sexual performance or amphetamines to enhance academic performance. Furthermore, the adverse effects of marijuana use are poor educational outcomes and cognitive impairment. Considering the racist social context of Brazil and that vulnerable populations, such as those with lower socioeconomic status, mental health problems, and minority populations, are more likely to experience the severe negative consequences of substance use, could whites face less stigma or repercussions if they are permitted to withdraw from their duties when they are ill? Other analyses that verify job placement, income, and other potential protective factors can help to expand this discussion. Indigenous peoples were 3 times more likely to have problems with police than white people; those aged 18 to 29 had approximately 10 times the likelihood of those aged 61 and older; and men were more likely to have problems with police than women. Similarly, users who used it more than once a month or daily were more likely to encounter the police than those who used it less frequently. Catholic, Spiritist, and Evangelical religious affiliations, living in the northeast, and older age at first use were identified as protective factors. In Brazil, marijuana became prohibited in the colonial period and was directly related to the enslaved black population. Pointing to the racist heritage that the country carries, marijuana descends from black culture, which led to the stigmatization that black people who used the weed were lazy, rowdy, and savage. Thus, a eugenics hygiene process prohibited marijuana from being circulated and preached as a degenerative element to health. As the findings on the indigenous population demonstrate, we refer to the work of Barreto, 65 who focused on the sociocultural issues associated with the use of coca leaves in the Andes and Amazon regions and historically reconstructed a tendency to indiscriminately link coca to cocaine and, consequently, to drug trafficking, demonstrating a bias of denial of the historical and cultural roots of the age-old use of this plant by traditional communities. According to this author, efforts to break the silence surrounding indigenous issues are due to science. We emphasize that the inclusion of Tupi Guarani indigenous people in our research group III seems to have favored access to information about this population to think about care policies. According to Carneiro 20 the youth are punished the most for their everyday recreational activities, making police violence more devastating for these age groups. The results indicate that users with longer use histories are more likely to be associated with this adverse effect, possibly indicating how the War on Drugs is perpetuated on a daily basis and predicting that at some point in their lives, they will encounter issues with the police. We are aware that the illegality of marijuana does not prevent its use, but rather exposes its consumers to danger on a daily basis, such as by requiring them to engage in risky behavior to obtain the drug. Thus, we question what it means for self-identifying as white to be more associated with exposure to risky means of obtaining while being less associated with issues with the police. Especially vulnerable populations, such as poor young people, blacks, and residents of the periphery, are more susceptible to incarceration as a result of prohibitionist policies, 73 , 74 it appears that for whites, exposure to dangerous modes of shopping does not necessarily correlate with problems with the police, an institution that has historically operated on the basis of racial bias and for which the importance of anti-racist educational processes has been indicated. In the process of regulating marijuana use, the prior distension of police forces in the face of ongoing decriminalization 62 has been highlighted. This strategy was more prevalent among individuals with postgraduate and graduate degrees, who use it more frequently and for longer durations, indicating that this type of information can reach experienced marijuana users more easily. In a study that explored the different meanings of substance use and associated occupations, Kiepek et al 50 found similar strategies among marijuana users. Given the reflection on the critical perspectives of occupation that aim to overcome dualisms, recognizing that its social validation takes place in the context of power struggles, social values, and moral points of view, and that its nature is politically constructed, 45 we agree that the concept of negative consequences is correlated with social marginalization and oppression. Women-gender people had lower odds of using it daily compared to men. Occupations such as sex work, engaging in crime, selling or using drugs, panhandling, and vagrancy are often judged as poor choices or evidence of a poor moral character. This perspective assumes that agency occurs at the individual level and that all potential options are equally available to all people; it fails to unearth the social forces that shape occupations. Thus, drug use can result in varied daily lives, which can be evaluated from the standpoint of occupational engagement. In addition to having therapeutic potential, drug use can play a role in determining health, articulating or not well-being, justice, the organization of behaviors, and being forged together with various lifestyles and contexts. Kiepek et al 45 took the construct of resistance as a lens for analyzing how non-sanctioned occupations defy prevailing expectations and may not fail attempts to meet expectations, but rather active practices of transgression—everyday acts of resistance that oppose power relations that validate certain ways of doing things, thereby generating opposition to occupational inequities. Non-sanctioned occupations as forms of resistance can contribute to the development of a knowledge base regarding the transformative potential of occupation, while avoiding the danger of perpetuating the marginalization of private and collective actions. With the aim of promoting self-care and establishing new political, cultural, and economic relationships, we posit that harm reduction, as a reference for occupational therapists in caring for people who use drugs, can anchor actions to value the diversity of bodies, knowledge, and cultures, directing efforts toward care in freedom with the goal of social transformation of those who experience process addiction. As a matter of social justice and contributing to social legitimacy, occupational science can play a significant role in developing a critical understanding of the social construction of occupations as moral or immoral, deviant or normal, and healthy or unhealthy, as well as different ways of acting and being. The probabilistic analyses conducted using non-probabilistic sampling, and the use of a closed online survey. In addition to being criminalized in Brazil, the population of interest is not listed so that an accurate sample can be drawn; therefore, the sample size was used as a strategy to qualify our efforts but does not permit generalizability of the results presented. Nonetheless, despite these limitations, the results shed light on a subject that has been inadequately explored and on which further research is required. This exploratory study aimed to provide a general and descriptive overview of the findings, requiring further studies to deepen the highlighted aspects. The exploratory study allows for a descriptive approach to prevalence with less generalization ability due to the biases of the respondents. This is the second study conducted in Brazil involving a non-clinical population of marijuana users and the first from an occupational perspective to examine predictors of well-being among the effects of marijuana use and its prohibition on the daily lives of adults. Identifying the effects of the use and prohibition of marijuana in promoting well-being from the conception of drug use as a non-sanctioned occupation can broaden the understanding of this complex human phenomenon, which includes health and criminal repercussions that can subsidize the development of approaches more equitable and adequate in occupational therapy to reduce personal and social harm. In: Surjus, L. Author Contributions: Luciana Togni de Lima e Silva Surjus was responsible for the conceptualisation, study design, literature search, data interpretation, writing and review. Natalia Cavalcante Dainesi was responsible for the study design, data collection, data interpretation and writing. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Subst Abuse. Find articles by Felipe Granado de Souza. Received Jul 12; Accepted Feb 21; Collection date Open in a new tab. Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odds ratio; cOR, crude odds ratio. Abbreviations: aOR, adjusted odds ratio; cOR: crude odds ratio. Felipe Granado de Souza was responsible for data design, data analysis, writing and review. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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