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WhatsApp +1 (323) 524- 6643 Buy Weed Cocaine in Muscat Nizwa Salalah Oman

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Box , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia. The objectives were to test the effect of environmental gradients, crop plants and time on weed species composition, to rank the importance of these particular factors, and to describe the patterns of species composition and diversity associated with these factors. The ordination process CCA provided a sequence of plant communities and species diversity that correlated with some anthropogenic factors, physiographic variables and crop types. Therefore, length of time since farm construction, disturbance levels and altitude are the most important factors related to the occurrence of the species. The perennial species correlated with the more degraded mountain areas of new farm stands, whereas most of the annuals correlated with old lowland and less disturbed farms. The concept of a biotic community as a discrete ecological unit is somewhat vague but nonetheless useful because it allows ecologists to define accurately the vegetation with which they are concerned Radosvich, A weed community and its environment when treated together as a functional system are known as an ecosystem. In this paper we look in particular at agricultural ecosystems, or agro-ecosystems. In agro-ecosystems species diversity, distribution and productivity are determined by the complementary relationships that develop among weeds, crops, and the environment they both share Radosvich, Arable weed assemblages respond to crop type, sowing date and field history Chancellor, Weed communities, consisting predominantly of annual plants, show a much higher degree of temporal dynamics than other vegetation types. Furthermore, data comparing weed assemblages within fields of single farms often show marked field-to-field variation, indicating that field history as well as local environment affect weed occurrence Marshall and Arnold, Despite its arid nature, Oman is home to various types of plant species. The Dhofar area, in the south of the country, contains many afro-tropical and eremic faunistic species, including some endemics, and there is evidence that the region constituted a refuge during both mesic and xeric climatic phases prior to the present period of moist conditions. Rigorous conservation measures are needed to prevent the loss of this small ecologically unique area of Arabia Sale, ; El-Sheikh, Up to, many Jabalis the Omani population in Dhofar supplemented their pastoral lifestyle with the cultivation of grain and leguminous crops within circular stone enclosures plots as a protection from domestic stock. Subsequently, there has been a significant increase in the extent of cultivation on the Salalah coastal plain, where crops can be cultivated on a commercial scale with irrigation from underground water reserves. This, along with a variety of other factors, led to the cessation of cultivation in the mountainous regions Sale, In recent years, however, the Omani government has constructed many experimental farms on the natural land of the mountains. Regarding the publication of species checklists, the flora of Oman is still not well known, and needs further intensive investigation. Of these species, are endemic or nearly endemic, 25 of which are located in the Northern mountains and 12 in central Oman with the remaining 63 are located in Dhofar, including two endemic genera- Dhofaria and Cibirhiza. Floristically, the plants of Dhofar have a stronger affinity with those of the island of Socotra and the drier regions of tropical NE Africa, rather than with those of Northern Oman. Scientists, however, are not well informed about the diversity of weed flora, and weed vegetation has also not received particular attention in Oman, with, generally, Omani species merely being included in regional floras and checklists, e. The present study is the first attempt to document the weed vegetation of Southern Oman. The study shows the value of this area, which constitutes about two third of the total flora of the country, and can be considered as a hot spot for endemic, native and naturalized species. In addition, in Oman, some species recorded in this area are considered to be troublesome weeds. The area consists of sparsely vegetated desert steppe but with a range of Limestone mountains along the Southern coast that is covered in a type of vegetation unique in Arabia. The mountains extend Eastwards, in a crescent-shape, for about km from the border with Yemen Fig. The top of the range consists of a rolling plateau, rising to over m, dissected by deep wadis El-Baz, ; El-Sheikh, Map of Oman inset showing the study area of Salalah Dhofar region. There are no permanent watercourses, however pools persist in the wadi beds and there are a series of spring-fed pools along the foot of the mountains. For three months every year, from June until mid-September, during the Khareef or SW monsoon, these South-facing escarpments are blanked in moisture-laden clouds and in consequence are covered by dense woodland. The clouds quickly disperse as they spill over the mountain ridges and so this unique area of woodland is restricted to a narrow belt some km long but only extending from 3 to 30 km inland Miller and Morris, ; El-Sheikh, Using the notation of Walter , all months except July and August are arid Fig. The temperature rises again when the monsoon lifts in September. The total annual rainfall on the coastal plain is between 45— mm with maximum values in July. The mountains, however, receive a substantial amount of their total annual rainfall during the monsoon months with between and mm of July and August, see Miller and Morris and El-Sheikh Average climate diagram — of Salalah using the notation of Walter Oman lacks truly fertile agricultural soils: its best soils are the alluvial soils washed down from the mountains in the interior and along the coast El-Baz, ; El-Sheikh, Consequently, a large number of farms, irrigated using underground water, are located on the coastal plain. These farms grow coconut palms, banana, carica papaya, vegetables and fodder grasses. In the Dhofar Mountains, meanwhile, cultivation takes the form of enclosed plots associated with existing Jabali settlements, and experimental farms constructed by the Government. These farms cultivate grapes, Arabian coffee, orange and other citrus fruits, and vegetables. Twenty-eight m by m plots were used in this analysis. The samples were chosen to provide the most variability in the distribution of the weed vegetation in the common arable lands. Fifteen sample plots were selected from the farms on the coastal plain such as: 1- fodder grass Sorghum bicolor , Sorghum sudanense and Chloris gayana farms, which are characterized by soil intensively cultivated annually with perennial fodder crops but harvested after 7—9 months where the disturbance of tilling and management activities i. On the other hand, in the mountains, sample plots consisted of farms of coffee Coffea arabica , orange Citrus sinensis , grape Vitis vinifera and abandoned orchard farms. These farms are characterized by no intensive soil cultivation and only at the year of crop plantation they were subjected to a relatively high level of tilling and managment activities e. These activities are carried out in patches around the crop plants and ceased in the abandoned orchard farms. The environmental factors of the surveyed farms were recorded; including the time of farm construction, altitude m , disturbance level and soil type with its compactness level according to Radcliffe-Smith and Information and Documentation Center — Disturbance was classified into three levels: high level 1 , medium level 2 and low level 3 as described by El-Sheikh At level 1, the sites were completely degraded because of clear cutting and other human impacts. At the medium level, the sites were relatively stable although there was evidence of moderate disturbance from human impacts. At low level, sites were relatively or completely protected. These disturbance categories are modified to cope with the agro-ecosystem as human disturbances including soil cultivation are normal phenomena in arable lands. Therefore, in agro-ecosystem the time , the type and the extent of human disturbances were recorded and evaluated together in each site according to their intensity levels which are classified into the same three levels mentioned above. The time of disturbance at level 1: the disturbance takes place between vegetation periods of crops only, i. The type of disturbance at level 1: intensive as herbicides and firing can cause more degradation; level 2: non-intensive or medium due to tilling activities e. The extent of disturbance at level 1: disturbance on the total field surface, e. Soil compactness for each soil type was classified into three levels with level 1 indicating highly compacted soil, level 2 medium, and level 3 less compacted or loose alluvial soil according to the definitions in Bergmeier At the medium level the soil particles were dominated by silty colluvial soil with medium particle sizes. The low level relates to loose sand-loamy substrate soil with less hardpan. The characteristics of these environmental factors are listed in Table 1. The total weed cover was visually estimated as a percentage. Characteristics of the environmental factors for 28 surveyed plots and farms in the study area following Radcliffe-Smith ; Information and Documentation Center —; El-Sheikh ; Bergmeier, The cover values of the indicator and associated species in relation to the environmental variables time, altitude, disturbance, and soil compactness were analyzed using Canonical Correspondence Analysis CCA: CANOCO software 4. Dominance-diversity curves of the vegetation clusters were then drawn, where the abundance of each species is plotted on a logarithmic scale against the species rank in the sequence of species from the most to the least dominant species Whittaker, One hundred and two species were recorded, representing 83 genera and 30 families Table 2. Annual herbs were the most represented The six endemic species were: Dichanthium micranthum , Farsetia linearis , Maytenus dhofarensis , Phagnalon viridifolium , Teucrium mascatense and Tribulus omanense. Diagram of the life form spectra and chorotype of the arable weeds in Salalah farms. Two major vegetation groups in mountain and lowland farms were identified at level 1 of the TWINSPAN analysis and these were then separated into six minor vegetation groups at level 3 of the analysis Table 2 ; Fig. Their ordination along the first axis of the DCA and CCA showed that altitude, disturbance level, length of time since farm construction, soil compactness and types of agronomic activity all affected the composition of weed species in the study area. These vegetation groups were named according to the first and second dominant species as follows: I D. The mountain groups I, II and III inhabited by the newly constructed farms of orange, grape, and Arabian coffee and the abandoned arable land, were affected by high levels of disturbance and soil compactness. The lowland groups IV, V and VI , meanwhile, inhabited by the traditional banana and fodder farms in the coastal lowlands and the abandoned arable land, exhibited relatively low levels of disturbance and loose alluvial soil Fig. The abundant species are represented by the first four letters of the genus and species name. For the complete names of species see Table 2. The CCA diagram Fig. The D. The C. The A. The Suaeda aegyptiaca — A. They also had the highest C values of the relative concentration of dominance 0. Moreover, the first two dominant species contributed the highest values of total cover These had the lowest C values of the relative concentration of dominance 0. This number includes 40 weedy species of widespread distribution most likely as a result of contaminated crop seeds It is remarkable that some alien species successfully invaded the irrigated agricultural habitats in the fodder grass farms such as: Gynandropsis gynandra , Euphorbia serpens and Abutilon pannosum. Euphorbia prostrata , Euphorbia hirta and C. The endemics species are Maytenus dhofarensis , Phagnalon viridifolium , Farsetia linearis , Teucrium mascatense , Tribulus omanense and D. The origin of the Dhofar weeds, therefore, can be summarized as follows: 1 plants considered as remnants of the original vegetation, 2 immigrants from adjacent natural vegetation, 3 introduced and alien plants Bergmeier, ; Liira et al. The generic index approximates 1. This generic index value is in accordance with the study of Radcliffe-Smith in the Dhofar region. Therophytes represent the main floristic element in the cultivated land. Many of these have a short life cycle, which enable them to cope with the instability of the agro-ecosystems in which they occur Shaltout and El-Fahar, ; Bergmeier, The pluriregional categories of Saharo—Arabian, Irano—Turanian, Tropical, Eritro—Arabian and Mediterranean are represented by relatively high number of species in most life forms compared with the other floristic elements. This high value of pluriregional species in the Dhofar area may be due to: 1 the flora ranges from severe xerophytism to fertile stretches, 2 the geological gradient that ranges from the mountains to the low coastal plain and lateral wadis, 3 the vegetation composed of relics of the regional natural vegetation pool and weedy species, 4 the fact that the Dhofar area is located on the boundary between the Holaractic kingdom and the Palaeotropic kingdom Zohary, and 5 the fact that the Dhofar area is strongly influenced by the adjacent regions of Yemen and Ethiopia to the West, peninsular India to the East, and the deserts of North Africa and North—West India to the North Radcliffe-Smith, ; Miller and Morris, The fact that some of the endemic species are important components of the vegetation in terms of numbers of individuals might be because they are being maintained by a favorable climate, the influence of which might formerly have extended over a wider area, and consequently they might have been more widely distributed in the past than they are now. The structure of weed vegetation in Dhofar is mainly determined by the management of agricultural crops, competition, the presence of native species that depend on the disturbance, stress level, altitude, soil depth and topography. Mountain clusters that inhabit the newly arable land i. On the other hand, the lowland clusters inhabiting the older traditional arable land fodder and banana crops along the coastal plain of Dhofar are characterized by high numbers of weeds and species diversity, but the lowest number of natural species including endemics. These old lowland farms are characterized by regular agricultural practices e. In regularly disturbed habitats, the weed community tends to consist of short-lived obligate or facultative annual plants Grime, ; Shaltout and El-Halawany, ; Shaltout et al. The correlation coefficients between the environmental factors and the axes of CCA ordination suggest that the separation of the species along the first axis is strongly influenced positive correlated by the altitude, disturbance and compactness levels. The length of time since the construction of the farm, however, correlated negatively with the first axis. Cymbopogon parkeri , D. There is a clear distinction, therefore, between thermophilous weed communities at low altitudes with loose soil and communities in moderate and wetter areas at higher altitudes and with nearly hardpan soils. The results indicated that the D. These features may reflect the fact that wild species react in different ways when their habitats are disturbed by human. Some species flourish under disturbance such as mowing, irrigation, plowing and other tillage practices e. Convolvulus cephalopodus , Salvia deserti , Echinops spinosissima , Oxalis corniculata , Cymbopogon parkeri , D. In a natural plant community, any disturbance in the ecosystem tends to result in a change in the structure of the plant community El-Sheikh, Those plants which are susceptible to a particular kind of disturbance decrease in number or even disappear Chaudary and Akram, ; Bergmeier, This may be because weeds may invade newly disturbed habitats, but they are usually replaced by wild colonizers if the disturbance is ceased. Therefore, once agricultural operations cease, the systematic replacement of early and intermediate seral stages occurs through time until the original community appears Horn, ; Wet and Harland, ; Radosvich, ; Chaudary and Akram, Moreover, the high number of genera and species richness of this community suggests a high degree of heterogeneity within the farms e. These factors are collectively considered to represent an intermediate habitat that is suitable for many species. Some of these species prefer the rocky pastures, semi-wet meadows and woodlands, while other species occupy a wide range of human-made, more or less nitrophytic habitats Biondi et al. This may be because these farms are characterized by the lowest level of the disturbance during the growth period of the fodder until annual fodder harvest i. The time of disturbance is annual as tilling management activities, e. As many of annuals have a short life cycle, sometimes only a few weeks, which enable them to cope with the instability of the fodder agro-ecosystems in which they occur. Moreover, annual weedy species are characterized by anemochores which result in a higher level of seed dispersal across a greater area El-Sheikh, ; Liira et al. Grasses are among the important fodder plants in Oman which compete with the grassy weeds. These grassy weeds need the same nutrients as the fodder grasses which leads to increased competition than with non-grass weeds. In addition, competition between grassy weeds and fodder grasses is more intense because their roots occupy the same soil strata and possess a more general habit of fodder growth Baker, ; Holm, ; Radosvich, ; Chaudary and Akram, The Amaranthus viridus cluster in the banana fields exhibited a low number of perennials, shrubs and species diversity. This may be because the banana plants have crowded large leaves that prevent sunlight from reaching inside the farm and consequently affect weed growth El-Kady et al. The planting of the banana and their culms, however, still leaves sufficient space to allow the growth of some shading annual weeds Grime, ; Bergmeier, ; Liira et al. This may be due to the cessation of agriculture practices in these old abandoned arable sites which help for secondary succession proceeds. Therefore, secondary succession is toward more advanced seral stages, till reaching a stable stage of the original community. This in turn encourages the growth of perennial rhizomatous grasses that might be considered to be the remnants of the original vegetation. This habitat is considered as semi-natural and is characterized by low species cover because there is a lower level of competition between species Chaudary and Akram, ; El-sheikh, ; El-Sheikh et al. The evolutionary dynamism of vegetation linked to abandonment is most evident in the spreading of high grasses that invade neglected fields Biondi et al. Furthermore, the presence of some halophytes in this community e. Suaeda aegyptiaca , Atriplex dimorphostegia , Cressa cretica may be due to the relatively high soil salinity that characterizes the abandoned farms. The old abandoned farms in the coastal plain have poor drainage that results in water-logging and high salinity. Edapho-hygrophilous and semi-mesophilous species tend to be found under these conditions Bergmeier, The dominance diversity curves for the plant communities of the mountainous farms D. Hence, they are more profitable for approximating the geometric series of the niche-pre-emption that characterizes communities with low diversity Whittaker, ; Whittaker, ; Pielou, This means that these communities inhabiting the arable land on the mountains show less weed diversity. The behavior of these communities is controlled by the length of time since the farm construction between 5 and 12 years , high disturbance, more soil compactness and concentration of dominance of some wild species at high altitudes. The curves representing the plant communities of the coastal plain farms C. This kind of distribution approximates the log normal distribution, consequently there are many weed species of intermediate abundance values and few common species El-Sheikh et al. The high species diversity of these communities may be due to the spatial and temporal disturbance that characterizes the old farms. High levels of species diversity may be caused by local differentiation in soil properties around individual plants, since heterogeneity of environments allows the satisfaction of the requirements of diverse species within a community Mellinger and McNaughton, ; Whittaker and Levin, ; El-Sheikh et al. Therefore, altitude also influences the diversity of weed vegetation. Unexpectedly, species richness increases with the altitude of the neglected farms, which is in contrast with the decreasing patterns that are more commonly found in the mountain weed vegetation of the study area. Altitude and associated environmental factors do not only influence species composition and diversity, but also a proportion of dominant life forms of weed vegetation, therophytes and shrubs. The proportional changes from therophytes to shrubs along the altitudinal gradient, revealed in this study, suggest that at higher altitudes weed communities contain more species of adjacent vegetation, e. The present study also demonstrated that alien weeds and neophytes showed a remarkable concentration of occurrences at lower altitudes, see Kowarik and Sukopp In addition, the higher altitude sites are associated with specific climatic conditions, which are related with more precipitation, low temperature and base status of soil i. Soil compactness variable showed correlations with species richness and the cover values of the species. Moreover, soil compactness is related to high clay and organic matter content which exhibited significant differences between mountain and lowland farms. These results suggest the effective role of soil compactness in the weed community structure and diversity. The present findings agree with those of Fried et al. Organic matter content as a pivotal soil fertility factor can affect phytodiversity; and soil texture may affect productivity through the influence on water holding capacity, infiltration rate, moisture availability for plants and consequently plant nutrition Sperry and Hacke, ; Zhang et al. Six plant communities of weed vegetation were identified in the arable land of Salalah, Southern of Oman: I- D. The composition and diversity of weed vegetation in Dhofar are affected by many environmental gradients. In Dhofar, the arable lands include two broad categories strongly differing in agricultural management, further referred to as old and new farms. The old arable lowlands with low agricultural management was applied during the period of growth, while more recently mountain farms were subjected to hoeing weeding or tilling and high disturbance level. Therefore, the effect of variable crop was less pronounced than the effect of altitude, mechanical disturbances, soil compactness degree and the length of time since the farm construction. The study highlights the significance of the study area which harbors about two third of the total flora of the country and is considered as a hot spot of endemic, native and naturalized species. Dhofar, like other areas of Oman, is developing rapidly, and this development has the potential to put the natural ecosystem under stress through increased human activities such as farming, cutting for firewood, housing, road construction, and overgrazing; and this would lead to the loss of endemic and rare native species. One of the important features of a cloud forest is that a large proportion of total precipitation is filtered by the very presence of vegetation. Once the vegetation is degraded, it becomes more difficult to re-establish due to the reduced level of filtered precipitation. Over-use of the Dhofar cloud forest would seriously threaten this diverse ecosystem Miller and Morris, ; Ghazanfar, ; El-Sheikh, In addition, in Oman, some species recorded from this area are considered to be troublesome as they are invasive and weedy with rapid distribution; and the natural vegetation will be replaced by weeds and ruderal in few years. For these reasons, these mountains warrant designation as a natural reserve. I thank Prof. Kamal H. Shaltout, Prof. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Saudi J Biol Sci. Find articles by Mohamed A El-Sheikh. Production and Hosting by Elsevier B. All rights reserved. Open in a new tab. Character Mountain farms Coastal lowland farms A. Ipomoea obscura PH TR 0. Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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