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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Land-use intensification, contrary to sustainable land management, has an impact on the healthiness of the environmental agroecosystem. To assess the environmental implications in abandoned land, olive groves and maize crops, the most sensitive and reliable edaphic indicators were measured to estimate plant species diversity and potentially toxic elements in soil, among different types of land-use. Species diversity presents a decrease in maize crops and olive groves compared to abandoned land. The families with the greatest species diversity were Poaceae , Asteraceae and Fabaceae in each land-use. From the results of the canonical correspondence analysis among species, sampling sites and selected environmental variables, a clear separation between species and sampling sites belonging to different types of land-use was found, presenting strong correlation with specific edaphic parameters pH, Soil Organic Matter, Silt, Electrical Conductivity, Total Nitrogen, N O 3 - , P, K, Zn and Cu. Species diversity was reduced in maize crops due to anthropogenic interventions such as the excessive use of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers and herbicides. Despite the fact that the lowest richness of plant species was found in olive groves, non-removal of crop residue preserves soil organic matter. Future researches should therefore focus on the accumulation of toxic elements in agricultural land to preserve species diversity and a healthy environment. In the Mediterranean basin the prevailing soil groups Cambisols, Fluvisols, Luvisols, Leptosols which exhibit high spatial variability of their properties, the ecological factors vegetation, fauna, etc. It is well documented that the agro-environment schemes AES applied in fields as well as the increased proportion of land under agro-environmental management in the surrounding landscape, enhance local diversity. Gaba et al. Over the years the above interventions have overlapped the underlying natural patterns, have masked the contribution of parent material and have reduced floristic diversity Alloway, , Ferrero et al. As it is already known, not only do plants respond to soil conditions but they also affect them, while changes in land-use affect input and output fluxes of nutrients and carbon in agro-soils Dupouey et al. This can lead to changes of land quality and soil fertility, which in turn will affect crop productivity, plant species diversity and the decisions for management practices Bakhshandeh et al. The effects of land-use on land quality may be either positive or negative mainly depending on the soils and climatic conditions of the area. Kosmas et al. Allen et al. However, sustainable practices in olive groves and no use of herbicides improve soil fertility Vignozzi et al. The use of fungicides on the other hand, generates secondary pollutants to the soil, which contribute to the increase of the concentration of heavy metals and therefore they should not be ignored Ballabio et al. Triantafyllidis et al. Tsiafouli et al. Maize is a dominant and productive crop, both in local communities and the global food system. However, intensive tillage practices and weed chemical control in maize monocultures, reduce soil organic matter, which is a crucial for soil quality and species diversity Ferrero et al. A crucial point related with plant species diversity in cultivated land with land-use intensification is whether anthropogenic interventions have led to the extinction of native species. Only a few studies look at the effect of land-use on the edaphic properties and plant species diversity, under particular soil and climatic conditions at a field level, which must always be taken into consideration in the selection of a suitable and sustainable land management Buhk et al. In the Mediterranean basin, Balzan et al. Plieninger et al. An attempt has been made in this study to evaluate the effect of land-use on edaphic parameters, the soil toxic element accumulation and the species diversity in fields under loamy soils near the city of Agrinio Aitoloakarnania, Western Greece. Specifically, the aim of the present study is: a to evaluate the effect of three different land management practices on physicochemical soil characteristics and b to reveal which edaphic parameters are the most sensitive and reliable indicators of the correlation that exists among plant distribution, soil quality and land-use type under given soil and climatic conditions. The study area is located in the municipality of Agrinio in the prefecture of Aitoloakarnania in Western Greece Fig. The prefecture of Aitoloakarnania is one of the most agriculturally productive Greek areas, with tobacco being the main cultivated crop from until However, according to the Common Agriculture Policy CAP and the farm restructure in , the majority of tobacco cultivated lands were abandoned and most of them were transformed into pasture land. According to recent data Authority of Western Greece, Dept. These three land- use types occupy the Table 1 presents the usual management practices from each land-use type. The location of each of the eighty-one 81 fields which were selected to be studied is shown in Fig. The climate of Aitoloakarnania is suitable for many crops, due to the fact that the mean annual temperature is Nevertheless, the uneven seasonal distribution of rain makes irrigation an obvious and necessary option to increase and stabilize crop production. Olea europaea var. Land use types and usually management practices of study area. Data is coming from the processing of questionnaires which completed by producers and agronomists of the study area. Meteorological data were obtained by a network of meteorological stations of our laboratory PlantLab in the study area. Data collection took place during two successive years and The selected fields 81 were located in the agricultural area of Agrinio in Western Greece Fig. Each of the selected fields had an area of approximately 1 ha; olive fields included approximately trees, maize crops 80—88 thousand plants while abandoned fields of approximately the same size were chosen, in which no history of pesticide use has been recorded for the last 10 years. Short description of land-use, management practices and soil-climatic conditions of the study area are shown in Table 1. Soil sampling took place in the winter season for two years — , when soils are inherently variable in their distribution of plant nutrients Sabbe and Marx, A total number of 81 soil samples 27 from each land-use type, labeled through a GPS device were collected Fig. In order to compose a soil sample from olive groves, one central sub-sample was collected and then four other sub-samples, within a distance of 2 m from the central sub-sample — all beneath tree canopy- were mixed, as proposed by LUCAS topsoil sampling methodology Toth et al. Each of the samples which was received in maize fields and in abandoned lands, consisted of 10 cores, well mixed on site, and was collected from different points in the field with a zigzag soil sampling method Sabbe and Marx, Sampling was conducted by using a Dutch auger to a depth of 0—30 cm for all soil samples. Undisturbed soil cores for each field were received from 0 to 30 cm depth using cm 3 -cylinders 5 cm height and 5. During the sampling period April to October — the native plant species that occur in the selected fields of the three different land-use types were also collected Fig. Soil samples were air dried, then crushed and sieved through a 2-mm sieve. Total CaCO 3 equivalent was determined by using calcimeter Bernard. Available P P Olsen was measured according to Olsen The relevant concentrations were calculated through flame atomic absorption spectrometry AAS, model: Analyst by Perkin Elmer. The determination of N O 3 - was performed in water-extracts using Dionex Ionic Kosma et al. Plant specimens were identified mainly according to Tutin et al. Plant nomenclature follows Dimopoulos et al. Descriptive statistics was used to quantify soil properties. Kruskal Wallis test non-normal distributed sample was used to identify significant differences among the different land-use types. Statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS statistical package version Principal component analysis PCA was used to assess how many and which of the above 23 mentioned parameters can be considered as representative edaphic indicators Triantafyllidis et al. Under each of the principal component PC , only the variables with high factor loading were retained as selected environmental variables. The sum of the data concerning the plant species and the selected environmental variables were input to CANOCO software version 4. Topsoil properties resulting from the laboratory analysis are included in Table 2. In all land-use types, soil texture was loamy, and no statistically significant difference occurred among all treatments. Slightly alkaline mean soil pH values were observed in olive groves and maize crops while neutral in abandoned land. The rich detectable amount of mean total CaCO 3 in olive groves was higher compared to maize crops while lower values were observed in abandoned land. Low mean soil EC values were observed in all studied samples, with significantly mean higher and mean lower EC values detected in those collected from maize crops and abandoned land, respectively Table 2. Thus, an increasing trend of soil EC values in maize cultivations versus those of abandoned land is observed. In addition, the results of exchangeable sodium percentage ESP showed that the mean value with S. Among land-use types, significantly higher mean values were observed in maize crops 1. Least square means with Standard Deviation SD , min — max values of soil physicochemical parameters among different types of land use, Agrinion plain — Western Greece. Significantly higher mean P Olsen soil concentration was observed in annual crops and olive groves compared to abandoned land. K exch values show similar tendency without however any significant difference among the land-use types under study Table 2. The average values of soil organic C SOC were generally moderate but varied significantly among the land-use types, since the olive groves and the abandoned lands exhibit higher values than that recorded in maize fields Table 2. The average soil N O 3 - content, was also significantly different among land-use types, with the lowest mean values recorded in maize crops. The detected concentrations of heavy metals are shown in Table 3. The percentage distribution of soil heavy metals concentration Table 4 , shows that very high and very low plant-available fractions of analyzed metals, particularly of Cu and Zn, were detected. Except for Cu, the other total or pseudo-total aqua regia metals studied, did not present an abnormal content. Cu mean concentrations obtained either with DTPA method Cu DTPA or with aqua regia extraction C u total were significantly higher in the topsoil of olive groves in relation to the topsoil of the other two land-use types. Least square means with Standard Deviation SD of heavy metal fractions in agricultural soils. Significant differences of potentially toxic elements among different land-use types. PC1 is defined by soil fertility, PC2 by soil electrical conductivity, PC3 is defined by soil reaction and PC4 by the use of agrochemicals, that are mainly based on Cu. Matrix of principal component analysis of normalized physicochemical properties and elemental concentrations of the selected agricultural soils in study area significant loading factors are marked in bold. During the field work taxa that belong to 29 families were recorded in total. The number of taxa per land-use type is given in Table 6 , while in Table 7 the families and number of taxa per family, are presented Fig. From a floristic point of view, the abandoned land is the richest land-use type since it includes 94 taxa, while the olive groves with only 36 recorded taxa represent the poorest category. Twenty taxa were recorded only in maize crops, thirty-eight only in abandoned land and six only in olive crops. In addition, 13 taxa are common to all 3 different types of land-use. This particular index was selected due to the fact that it gives greater weight to taxa that are common in all three investigated cultivation types rather than to taxa found in only one lan-use category Bobo et al. Numbers of species from each family which were collected in cultivation fields of three different land use types. In the selected cultivation types the interrelation between floristic composition and environmental parameters was also studied. The results of the Canonical Correspondence Analysis between taxa, sampling fields and environmental variables are shown in two CCA biplot graphs Fig. CCA analysis of experimental fields, plant species and environmental variables based on the first two axis, explains the CCA biplot ordination diagram of the first two canonical axes 1, 2 with plant species and environmental variables arrows in cultivation fields of three different land use types. The environmental variables on the biplots diagrams are represented by arrows Fig. The arrow for each environmental variable points to the direction of the maximum change of that environmental variable across the diagram and its length is proportional to the rate of change in this direction ter Braak, These environmental variables with long arrows are mostly correlated both to ordination axes and the variation patterns of species or sampling fields shown in the ordination diagrams Fig. According to the CCA biplots ordination diagrams it is evident that the sampling fields deriving from different land-use are well segregated. Plots with medium to high positive score on Axis 1 are strongly correlated with the Cu DTPA , and are those from the olive groves. The plots from maize crops show medium to high score in Axis 2 and have a strong correlation with EC, P Olsen and K exch. The rest sample plots which took place at abandoned land are grouped on the negative side of Axis 1 and Axis 2 in the lower left part of the diagram and are strongly correlated with nitrate N O 3 -. From the second CCA biplots ordination diagrams that concern plants and environmental variables a clear distinction between the taxa which were found in the three different land-use types Fig. Taxa which were found in abandoned land were grouped on the lower left part of the diagram and their occurrence is strongly correlated with N O 3 -. A much smaller number of taxa is dispersed in the upper and lower right part of the ordination diagram, including mainly those recorded in maize crops and olive groves. Both groups present a positive correlation with pH. In the Mediterranean countries, intensive agriculture and the wide use of agrochemicals are usually associated with the decrease of soil content in organic substances, the presence of potentially toxic elements such as heavy metals, and the reduction of species richness in the agricultural land. This degradation and soil pollution, in connection with the depletion of species diversity, causes many environmental problems Newbold et al. The results of the present study are in agreement with previous literature data Lange et al. However, the applied agricultural practices should not deteriorate the quality of soils, deplete the stocks of organic matter, erode the upper fertile layer of soil and diminish species diversity leading to the uniformity of flora in cultivated land. For this reason, in the present study selected soil properties were measured in abandoned fields, olive groves and maize crops of the study area in order to identify the most sensitive and reliable soil indicators for the evaluation of land-use impact on soil quality and species diversity. A holistic dataset of soil health indicators should include physical, chemical and biological properties Doran and Zeiss, , Dick, However, Takoutsing et al. In this study twenty-three 23 soil physicochemical properties were used to estimate the effect of land-use types on edaphic properties and plant species diversity in cultivated land. This probably reveals that mostly the geogenic enrichment and less the anthropogenic activities affect most of the soil properties. However, in agricultural soils their physicochemical properties mainly exhibit to a mixed source both by natural and anthropogenic sources Kelepertzis, Soil pH variability observed among different land-use types Table 2 , is correlated to a corresponding increase of CaCO 3. As a consequence, significantly different values could be attributed to a combination of causes such as spatial variation of geogenic CaCO 3 Yassoglou, , different land management practices Table 1 and probably prior application of liming or acidifying materials. Our results are in accordance with what is suggested by Goulding , who reports that soil pH is affected by the type of plant cultivation and the use of fertilizers. Furthermore, our results show that soil pH is an environmental variable which is correlated with species diversity Table 9. According to Ahmad et al. The variability of pH values could influence P Olsen concentration in alkaline or acidic soil conditions. This is a good explanation for the rapid insolubilization of P 2 0 5 in alkaline pH values while the reduction of pH can accelerate calcium phosphate solubility and increase P bioavailability Moore et al. In our case the moderate mean P Olsen concentration that was observed in the abandoned land could be attributed to a such reduction of pH mean values Table 2. Nevertheless, in the other two land-use types significantly higher mean P Olsen concentrations were observed due to the long-lasting use of N-P-K fertilizers that reduces species richness and potentially affect their diversity Ceulemans et al. Similar results were observed by Chen et al. Yan et al. Other studies report that soil P fractions are influenced by the vegetation and its nutrient demands in phospates Yang et al. It is obvious that the type of land-use significantly affects the soil EC values , with higher values being observed in maize crops Table 2 , a result that is in accordance with previous studies Tsadila et al. As shown in Table 5 , soil EC is mainly related to the nitrate content of soil, the clay content, and the exchangeable Mg and Na and less with the K exch concentrations, results that are in line with those reported by Patriquin et al. The crop nutrient requirement varies among different crops due to their leaf morphology, photosynthesis and different growing conditions Lambers and Poorter, However, nitrogen inputs inorganic fertilizers, animal manure, sludge and composts, cover crops, etc. This is probably due to the high degree of nitrogen uptake by maize plants Weih et al. However, crop yield specifically in maize is closely associated with N application, where other inputs and management practices are optimal Bedoussac et al. These practices seem to affect significantly soil organic matter and total N, which are both important sources of soil nitrates Table 2. However, the extensive use of fertilizers, the management practice related to N enrichment and the consequent disturbance of soil quality influence the species richness in the maize crops in comparison with olive groves Table 6. Similar results were observed in previous studies Van den Berg et al. Moreover, previous studies Noitsakis et al. In this study, irrigation water was used only in maize crops Table 1 and not in the abandoned land or in the rainfed olive groves. Soil organic carbon in the study areas was also affected by the type of land-use, with the lowest values detected in maize crops Table 2. Crews and Rumsey report that in intensive maize monocultures SOC concentration decreases, although in agricultural land it takes years to decades to change the diminished SOC stock Poeplau et al. According to Lange et al. This assumption could possibly explain the organic carbon concentrations measured in abandoned lands of study area Fig. Although the number of species per family is lower in the olive groves in comparison with the relative numbers of the other two cultivation types Table 7 , SOC content remains in high levels. We suppose that this is mainly due to the different residue treatment as it is given in Table 1. Therefore, according to Vignozzi et al. The significant differences of total N topsoil concentration that are observed among the types of land-use Table 2 , could be correlated to the different amount of total inorganic nitrogen supplied to soil, depending on weed management, pruning residues integration, the animal manure and the use of inorganic fertilizers Table 1. The lowest ratio was measured in maize crops due to tillage practices and species richness, an assumption which is in line with the data reported by Fazhu et al. The potential toxic element accumulation in cultivation lands, due to long-term application of unsustainable management practices, has a significant impact on soil healthiness and on the functionality of agroecosystems Triantafyllidis et al. Although fertilizers are essential in order to provide adequate nutrients and ensure successful harvest, they contribute to the increment of some toxic heavy metals content in agricultural soils Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, Rezapour et al. This percentage was indirectly assessed by multiplying the inputs of inorganic fertilizers applied recently in the olive groves of the study area Table 1 , taking into consideration their Cu-impurity content, as it is described in Milinovic et al. From the above it is evident that the land-use and the usual management practices play an important role in the healthiness and the sustainability of agroecosystem environment. However, for the evaluation of the agrochemical effect on crucial environmental properties, the total fraction of heavy metals and DTPA-extractable in agricultural soil, was determined. The interpretation of the results showed that only Cu concentration is a threat of contamination of agro environment, according to the threshold and guideline values for metals in soils Ministry of the Environment—MEF, Finland, Although in the European Union, there is no common agreement on copper threshold values for the definition of risk, Adrees et al. Our results showed that in 7. All these soil samples with high Cu accumulation were observed in olive groves. According to the optimal range of Cu in croplands, proposed by Adrees et al. For instance, copper availability decreases with high pH, high soil organic carbon and high clay content Baker and Senft, Our findings showed that Cu DTPA concentration Cu bioavailable was increased in olive groves compared to other land-use types Table 3 , Table 4 , despite the simultaneous increase in soil organic carbon Table 2. The same pattern between SOC and Cu bioavailability, was observed in vineyard soil Kelepertzis et al. Therefore, this approximately tripling of the bioavailable fraction of Cu in olive groves Table 3 is obvious due to the management practices as it is described in Table 1. From the above it is evident that a continuous interaction is observed between Cu fractions in soil environment. This continuous interaction proves the major role of copper exogenous inputs. These Cu inputs increase the bioavailable copper fraction and can lead to a decrease of species diversity due to the potentially toxic concentrations Table 5 which are in accordance with Poschenrieder et al. In addition, previous studies Soons et al. Therefore, different relationships were observed in olive, maize and abandoned land indicating that the land-use affects the above interaction Table 3 , Table 4 , Table 6. Consequently, limiting the application of Cu-fungicides to reduce the contamination risk in specific land-use, will have beneficial effects on environmental health e. Taking all the above into consideration, we are led to the following interpretation: different agronomic practices influence soil nutrient content, soil salt content and the accumulation of heavy metals Cu , which are likely to affect species diversity and the environmental implications among different land uses. Different land use types affect soil edaphic properties and plant species diversity. From the twenty three 23 edaphic parameters which were studied, significant differences were observed in six 6 physicochemical parameters pH, EC, SOC, total N total, N O 3 - , P O l s e n among different land uses. The anthropogenic activities such as land-use intensification, fertilization and pesticide application have negative effects on species diversity reducing the richness of plant species in olive groves and maize crops in comparison with abandoned land. This environmental variable Cu was found to deviate from normal limits having probably a crucial impact on plant species diversity in olive groves. However, a further research should be done with the aim to estimate the Cu toxicity in species diversity. In addition, among the examined environmental variables which were taken into account in the present study the SOC, total N, N O 3 - , P Olsen and K exch seem to play a particularly important role in the maintenance of the ecological balance in agroecosystems. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Saudi J Biol Sci. Find articles by Vassilios Triantafyllidis. Find articles by Anastasios Zotos. Find articles by Chariklia Kosma. Find articles by Efthimios Kokkotos. Open in a new tab. Abandoned land Olive groves Maize crops Description Abandoned farmland used for grazing. Previously, cultivated with tobacco — Olea europaea var. Mean yield: 50—70 Kg per tree. Cold tolerant Zea mays L. Insect: to control Bactrocera oleae: solution of ammonium salts mixed with insecticide alpha-cypermethrin , applied either in McPhail traps or sprayed in olive foliage Herb: a Before sowing: mechanical manipulation of soil. Age of groves: over 30 years old Mouldboard ploughing at a depth of 20—25 cm on March, followed by one rotary hoeing before early to mid-April. Sowing dates were from early to mid-April for each year. Summary table of families and number of species per family in the different cultivation fields. Environmental variables Axis 1 Axis 2 pH 0. Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Abandoned farmland used for grazing. Previously, cultivated with tobacco — Cold tolerant. Herb: no herbicides were use, only grass shredder was used to control weeds. Insect: to control Bactrocera oleae: solution of ammonium salts mixed with insecticide alpha-cypermethrin , applied either in McPhail traps or sprayed in olive foliage. Herb: a Before sowing: mechanical manipulation of soil. Age of groves: over 30 years old. Mouldboard ploughing at a depth of 20—25 cm on March, followed by one rotary hoeing before early to mid-April. Gun sprinklers from early-June until early September, 6—8 times. Grass shredder was used, the grass biomass is left in place to decompose and by using mulcher shredder for pruning-derived woody residues. Mediterranean, characterized by hot dry summers and cold humid winters. Total N g kg Zn DTPA. Zn total. Mn total. Fe DTPA. Mn DTPA. Na exch. Mg exch. P Olsen. Fe total. Ca exch. Cu DTPA. Cu total. K exch.

Herbicide Use in the Era of Farm to Fork: Strengths, Weaknesses, and Future Implications

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Climate change mitigation is a major concern of the European Union EU. This reduction was proposed due to the supposed negative effects of pesticides on the environment and its biota. Among the different pesticide groups herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, etc. This review aimed to shed light to any factors that might hinder the reduction of herbicide use; thus, the implementation of the Farm to Fork Strategy underlines some of its weaknesses and highlights key points of a viable herbicide reduction-related policy framework. The literature suggests that integrated weed management IWM consists perhaps the most suitable approach for the reduction of herbicides in the EU. Even though it is too soon to conclusively assess F2F, its success is not impossible. Herbicides might be the most difficult among pesticides to reduce in conventional agriculture Lechenet et al. Subsequently, the horizontal implementation of F2F within a multi-speed EU might ignore the fact that several Member States would adapt faster than the others. Regardless of their share in the total gross agricultural product of EU, Southern European economies are more agriculture-reliant compared to the Northern ones Esposito et al. The aspired herbicide reduction could thus have a greater impact on these Member States that are already considered economically fragile Gopinath et al. Furthermore, the reduction of herbicide use premises the adoption of suitable, alternative weed management strategies. Several non-chemical weed control methods tillage, mowing, mulching, flaming, the use of cover crops, and many more have been proposed as alternatives to chemical weed management that could reduce the use of herbicides Fogliatto et al. Even though non-chemical weed management complies with F2F, on certain occasions, these practices could be inefficient. Tillage can control annual weeds, but it is not recommended for perennial weed management as it propagates their vegetative underground organs Romaneckas et al. Similar to tillage, mowing might not be suitable for controlling perennial weeds as they can produce new shoots Ringselle et al. Mulching affects soil temperature and increases acidity Dong et al. Flaming controls weeds for a short period of time 1—3 weeks , is dangerous for the crop, and is not very effective against perennial weeds Fogliatto et al. Intercropping and cover crops suppress weeds but increase the competition for resources Steenwerth et al. Even though considerable research has been conducted regarding the use of biopesticides and biological control agents, their implementation on field conditions remains challenging EIP-AGRI, Regardless of whether the EU will renew the approval of glyphosate or not, some member states of the EU banned, plan to ban, or consider banning glyphosate-based herbicides CEO, Replacing glyphosate with other active ingredients could be problematic for F2F. In their majority, the herbicides that could substitute glyphosate are effective against a single group of weeds e. Replacing glyphosate would not only require the combined application of different herbicides Fogliatto et al. This could further increase the average herbicide consumption within the EU, so how can we sustainably reduce the use of herbicides? Literature thrives with non-chemical weed management alternatives, yet their efficacy is often debatable. Several of their weaknesses have already been mentioned above. Consequently, integrated weed management IWM consist perhaps the best candidate among the available weed management strategies. IWM is a widely accepted weed management approach that utilizes chemical and non-chemical control methods Shaner, ; Tataridas et al. Even though IWM includes the rational use of herbicides, its conceptualization was based on the diversification of weed management practices and the promotion of non-chemical alternatives. In a recent study, Riemens et al. Under the context of each one of these axes, several different techniques and methods have been studied and evaluated within the EU, providing a wide range of management alternatives. Cultivar selection could be based on certain agronomic traits that enhance competitive abilities and can potentially suppress weeds more efficiently Kokare et al. Regarding soil management, tillage, stale seedbed, and dead mulches have been proposed to reduce infestations and seedbank presence Pinke et al. Mowing, hoeing, and flaming Gerhards et al. At this point, it should also be clarified that the ban of glyphosate in the EU is a possibility, not a certainty. The adverse environmental impact of glyphosate has not yet been proven beyond doubt as several studies suggest that it has a relatively short half-life, it is inactive in soil as it binds to the soil components, it does not significantly affect the soil microbiota Duke, a , b , and its acute and chronic toxicity on mammals is possibly very low Duke, b. Predicting the profitability of IWM is challenging. The economic efficiency of alternative pest management strategies is affected by the recovery-rate of pest populations, the interactions among different pest populations, and their resistance to certain management methods, among others Tisdell et al. In addition, the potential ban of glyphosate should also be reckoned. Schulte et al. IWM case studies in the EU have also reported similar or insignificantly lower yields, compared to conventional weed management strategies Verschwele et al. While studying the effects of herbicides on crop production in wheat fields of western France, Gaba et al. Maintaining yields while reducing herbicide use would benefit food security. Food security is based upon four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability Gunaratne et al. NMFA, As the risk of poverty is higher in rural areas in the EU Eurostat, , and given that poverty and malnutrition are closely correlated Siddiqui et al. In a recent meta-analysis by Shakoor et al. Moreover, NT relays heavily on the use of herbicides for weed control Maheswari, A recent simulation study by Colbach and Cordeau reported that an herbicide-free approach in NT could be devastating for the yields. However, NT is not the only available tillage alternative. NT is one of the several systems included under the concept of conservation tillage CT. CT intends to conserve soil and water via a reduction in the intensity of tillage and the retention of plant residues Carter, Provided that its heterogeneity will hinder the unanimous reduction of herbicides within EU, a potential solution could be to divide the EU in clusters of Member States with similar characteristics and adjust F2F accordingly to these clusters. An example of this proposition is presented on Fig. Results of the k-means clustering. The countries within each cluster are presented on the right of the figure. Dim1 and Dim2 represent a projection of the original data set. Each dimension represents a certain amount of the variation contained in the original data set. The clustering analysis grouped the EU Member States in three major clusters: cluster C1 includes the Member States with the highest herbicide consumption France, Italy, Germany, Poland, and Spain , while the clusters C2 and C3 include the ones with moderate and low herbicide consumption respectively. Of course, under no circumstances should these findings inculpate C1 Member States. In fact, in , even though On the contrary, this clustering would aim to facilitate the implementation of F2F by weighting the contribution of each cluster in the total EU herbicide consumption. Prioritizing the reduction of herbicides in the C1 would be more impactful to the implementation of F2F, as per the above clustering. It should be noted though that the clustering performed in the present study is a mere simplified example. The agricultural gross value of each cluster, the acreage of agricultural land, the cultivated crops, the applied herbicides and their active ingredients, and the treatment frequency should also be included in such clustering analyses. Ranaldo et al. Both tactics though bear their risks. Case in point, a report by the UN environment programme , regarding the effects of taxes and subsidies on pesticide and fertilizer use, found that high taxes may encourage illicit behaviors and low taxes may be ineffective UN, In the same report, subsidies were found to be more beneficial for large-scale farms UN, The authors also noted that large-scale farms are rarely owned by women, implying an underlying gender bias UN, Under no circumstances do these findings establish that taxations and subsidies are pointless. Nevertheless, perhaps it would be preferable to emphasise on raising awareness and educating the public. Farmers tend to focus on the short-term economic benefits, while the agroecological benefits of herbicide reduction are long-term oriented EIP-AGRI, Information and knowledge can be useful to overcome these barriers. Toubou et al. Similarly, Lucchi and Benelli concluded that knowledge facilitates the adoption of integrated pest management IPM strategies in vineyards of Italy. Another important aspect are the extension services ES. According to the findings of Wuepper et al. This could also be the case for weed management. The reduction of herbicide use might call for independent, public advice to farmers. This does not signify the exclusion of the private sector. On the contrary, private—public collaborations have been proven to be highly effective. Consumers play a crucial role in F2Fas their preferences and choices demand can force farmers to comply with the proposed herbicide reduction Saleh et al. However, a significant portion of EU citizens might not be or does not feel adequately enough informed. Recent reports indicate that in their majority, EU citizens are not well informed about soil legislation and protection Schismenos et al. Admittedly, the EU has intensified its efforts to make the dangers of herbicide overuse lucid to the public. Informational initiatives should also target younger ages. The inclusion of lectures in school and university curriculums would result to future consumers with environmental concerns and invest in the agronomists of tomorrow from their early stages. Framework of an herbicide reduction policy. The framework includes every actor of the supply chain EU Commission, Governments, Corporations of the agri-food sector, Farmers, and Consumers. The arrows represent the beneficial interactions among the actors. Finally, and most importantly, EU should always address the criticism it receives. According to Fuchs et al. The Commission should take into account these comments and depending on their validity re-evaluate its action plans. Adeux, G. Diversified grain-based cropping systems provide long-term weed control while limiting herbicide use and yield losses. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 39 4 , 1— Mitigating crop yield losses through weed diversity. Nature Sustainability, 2 11 , — Article Google Scholar. The effect of no-ploughing tillage using cover crops on primary weed infestation of carrot. Acta ScientiarumPolonorumHortorum Cultus, 14 2 , 27— Google Scholar. Boari, A. Parasitic weed management by using strigolactone-degrading fungi. Pest management science, 72 11 , — Herbicide free agriculture? A bio-economic modelling application to Swiss wheat production. Agricultural Systems, , — Cover crops to secure weed control strategies in a maize crop with reduced tillage. 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Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Springer Nature or its licensor e. Reprints and permissions. Triantafyllidis, V. Water Air Soil Pollut , 94 Download citation. Received : 04 October Accepted : 21 January Published : 30 January Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Download PDF. Landscape features support natural pest control and farm income when pesticide application is reduced Article Open access 25 June Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Full size image. References Adeux, G. Google Scholar Boari, A. Google Scholar Dainotto, R. Google Scholar Fogliatto, S. Chapter Google Scholar Kuht, J. View author publications. 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