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Although possessing notably milder psychoactive properties than other psychedelics, such as psilocybin and mescaline, cannabis has a long history as an entheogen in the religious and curative traditions of Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and the Americas. For millennia, human beings have used cannabis alongside more traditional spiritual practices meditation, prayer, chanting, fasting as a vehicle for spiritual or peak-experiences. In peak-experiences, we become more detached, more objective, and more capable of perceiving the world more truly as a result of relative ego-transcending, self-forgetting, egolessness, and unselfishness Maslow, , p. Peak-experiences, Maslow observed, occur across time, culture, religious tradition, economic class, and gender, and they are essentially incommunicable, unstructured, self-validating, beatific moments that can permanently change one's attitude toward life p. The world perceived in peak-experiences is regarded as good and desirable, and as a result such moments of expanded perception often result in a greater acceptance of all aspects of life, including those once rejected as unwelcome Maslow, , p. The sense of the sacred in the everyday that peak-experiences give rise to make one more loving, accepting, spontaneous, honest, and innocent. When these unitive experiences have such immediate aftereffects, they produce profound religious conversions that have lasting therapeutic effects Maslow, , pp. Recognizing their centrality to mental and physical health, Maslow made peak-experiences an important marker of self-actualization, the impulse to realize one's full potential. Readers familiar with his theory of the hierarchy of needs will recall that self-transcendence sits atop a pyramidic structure supported by a pattern of motivations whereby an individual's physiological, safety, belongingness, and self-esteem needs are met prior to self-actualization. Maslow found that self-actualizers—healthy, creative, and resilient people—shared one feature in common: they reported having mystical peak-experiences that resulted in more efficient perceptions of reality, spontaneity, task-centeredness, autonomy, acceptance of self and others, appreciation of life's basic goodness, and comfort with solitude Steindl-Rast, , pp. By facilitating peak-experiences, entheogens may contribute to the motivation to move beyond basic needs and to strive for self-betterment Steindl-Rast, , p. As his work progressed, Maslow added self-transcendence as a possible peak category in light of the reports that he collected from his patients, including children and adolescents, of intense peak-experiences, without them first moving through the expected stages of his hierarchy. In the wake of that revelation, he expanded the hierarchy of needs to include—in addition to biological, safety, belongingness, and esteem deficiency needs—cognitive needs knowledge, meaning , esthetic needs beauty, balance , self-actualization needs person growth, morality, creativity , and self-transcendence Scott and Evans, , In adding self-transcendence and other growth needs to his hierarchy, Maslow made clear that self-actualization is not enough for a full picture of the optimally functioning human being. He therefore postulated that people who exhibited Being-cognition, and seemed to have gone beyond self-actualization, operated from a higher state of motivation Koltko-Rivera, , p. Maslow predicated his psychology of religion on the premise that mystical or peak-experience is at the core of all religions—and that even the need for religion may represent an attempt to achieve freedom from feelings of anxiety and distress through self-transcendence Maslow, , p. The question of the place of religious practice in satisfying Maslow's hierarchy of needs and measuring the motivational drive for religious behavior is challenging work that needs further verification, but it may account for the universality of religious practice across time and culture Brown and Cullen, , Maslow asserted in the posthumous publication The Farther Reaches of Human Nature that self-actualized and self-transcending individuals are not governed by the rules of society, but by the laws of their own character. In such people, the here-now takes on added import, thereby allowing them to live more fully from the creative center of being without fretting, striving, or yearning. This essay identifies a history of cross-cultural cannabis use to elicit peak-experiences and shows how those moments of expanded perception were contextualized in a variety of spiritual and curative traditions. Cannabis grows naturally in India, China, Persia, and throughout Central Asia, and it is a rugged, edible plant that provided an important dietary supplement for people living in harsh conditions. In South and Central Asia, the use of cannabis precedes the advent of written record keeping and was firmly established long before the development of institutionalized religion—at a time when magic, mythology, healing, and sacrament blended seamlessly in shamanism, the oldest religious and spiritual tradition known to humankind. In the Yanghai Tombs near Turpan in Central Asia, excavations resulted in the discovery of a year-old grave of a Caucasoid shaman whose accoutrements included a large cache of superbly preserved cannabis, presumably deployed as a medicinal or psychoactive agent or as an aid to divination—thus providing some of the oldest documentation of cultivated cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent Russo et al. Cannabis production seems to have been continuous in the region for thousands of years, and the area around the Tarim Basin remained a major cannabis producing center until the 19th century Peri, , p. In addition to deploying herbs like cannabis as one facet of holistic healing, shamans use the repetition of vocal and instrumental sound, manipulation of the breath, fasting, and prolonged sexual abstinence to help them enter trance states Glosecki, , p. The loss of ordinary patterns of time and space and a radical realignment of perception, often culminating in some form of symbolic death and resurrection, are among the shifts in consciousness evoked by shamanic techniques of ecstasy McKenna, , p. The ancient shamanic practices of journeying in search of a lost soul as a modality of healing appears in the Rig Veda , one of the oldest religious texts in any Indo-European language Robinson, , pp. It remains difficult to know with certainty when Hindus first settled in the Indus river valley, since their relationship to the earlier Indus Valley Civilization is unclear. The Hindus who succeeded the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization did not identify with the material culture of their forbearers, instead they venerated the Vedas and built grand temples to their gods. The chief deities of the Rig Veda were personified as forces of nature sun, fire, wind, sky, rain , and they were the foci of regular ritual sacrifices—as were other principal gods, including Varuna guardian of sacred laws and the divine order , Prajapati lord of creatures and the primeval person whose dismemberment creates the phenomenal world , Agni the fire god who consumes the sacrificial offerings and conveys them to the gods , Yama the god of death who looks after the souls of the departed , and Soma the god of a tonic of eternal life pressed from a psychedelic plant Robinson, , pp. Like the shamans before them, Vedic Brahman priests prayed for individuals, ensured the collective welfare by warding off spirits, cured diseases, helped to defeat enemies, and brought wealth and prosperity to their communities. Ensuring peace and harmony—and providing a path for the development of human consciousness beyond the ego—were also credited to Brahmanic rites out of which grew yoga and the belief in individual paths to salvation Frawley, , pp. The hymns in the Atharva Veda include the imprecations, blessings, prayers, and magical spells of the type frequently discoverable in popular superstitions. The Atharva Veda mentions cannabis as one of the five sacred plants and asserts that a guardian angel resides in its leaves Touw, , p. Book Two of the Atharva Veda features a hymn to win protection from injury, to ensure good health, and to bring prosperity, and it is rendered effectual by wearing a charmed amulet. In that incantation, cannabis is lauded as a panacea for rheumatism and a variety of other ills. During certain rites hemp boughs were thrown into a fire 'to overcome enemies' and other evil forces. The Vedas also refer to the plant as a 'source of happiness,' a 'joy-giver,' and a 'liberator' Touw, , p. As later generations appropriated the Rig Veda , Atharva Veda, and other Vedic scriptures, the transition from Vedic Brahmanism to Hinduism happened almost imperceptibly. Some Vedic gods suffered diminution as others grew in stature an organic process that continued into the Puranic Ages. Indra, for example, retained his popularity but lost his status as leader of the gods. Conversely, Shiva and Vishnu along with their female consorts assumed exceptional positions in what became the Hindu trinity trimurti Eliade, , pp. We realize from the proclivities exhibited by both gods that the peoples of the Indian subcontinent have long understood that plants such as cannabis are essential tools in exploring consciousness. According to the Vedas , Shiva, who rules over the constant cycles of creation and destruction that make up the phenomenal world, lives the life of an ascetic on Mount Kailash. After sampling cannabis flowers on Mount Mandara, another holy site, he brought the plant down from the sacred mountain for the benefit of humankind Godlaski, , p. For that reason, Sadhus, or holy mendicants devoted to the ascetic life and to following Lord Shiva, consume large quantities of cannabis flowers and hashish from small clay pipes called chillums during rituals of worship, meditation, and yoga Godlaski, , p. Yogis ascetic holy men and fakirs mendicant monks have long smoked cannabis mixed with tobacco to enhance meditation, particularly during Diwali, the Festival of Lights, and the Kumbha Mela festival held every twelve years Warf, , The Book of Songs , one of the Five Classics of the traditional Confucian canon, offers an idealized portrait of life during the preceding Zhou dynasty c. It features folk tunes, songs of the nobility, ritual hymns, and lyrical ballads addressing topics ranging from ancestor worship and the concerns of commoners to the affairs of members belonging to the ruling house Owen, , p. Several passages in the Book of Songs reference cannabis, due to its centrality to everyday life. In one such poem, the marriage customs in the Lu and Qi kingdoms in modern Shangdong province are highlighted, and the process of negotiating a nuptial agreement is compared to planting hemp Waley, , p. Prior to the Han dynasty, the knowledge of healing herbs was highly esteemed and often furtively passed down through families of practitioners in China. When traditional shamanistic practices were repressed under Han rule, as state authorized religions commanded imperial favor, shamanism merged with religious Daoism as a way to survive. Religious Daoism emphasized ritualistic, ceremonial, and alchemical exercises in which herbal and mineral brews were quaffed in the quest to achieve immortality. Religious Daoists, who trained in alchemy and understood the psychoactive and entheogenic properties of cannabis, undoubtedly knew how to manufacture hemp-based incenses and elixirs for ceremonial rituals. Although references to cannabis in Daoist literatures are rare, the custom of burning the plant to drive away evil spirits is featured in the sixth-century literary anthology Essentials of the Matchless Books Wu Shang Pi Yao. The smoke from Daoist incense burners would also have had a salutary effect upon people gathered together on ceremonial occasions, and religious Daoists often combined herbal medicines with meditation and other exercises to effect spiritual transformation symbolized in the alchemical transmutation of base metals into gold. Visitors, merchants, mendicants, and doctors have traversed the mountains and valleys of the Tibetan plateau for thousands of years, and they left behind knowledge of their religious, medical, and cultural traditions, which mixed sometimes seamlessly over time with indigenous shamanistic and animistic Bon traditions. This intersection of traditions in Tibet made possible the formulation of a unique form of Buddhism known as Vajrayana or Tantra. While Chinese contributions to Vajrayana medicine were significant, they remained secondary to those of Ayurveda. Botanicals, however, played an important role in both Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine, and the abundance of cannabis growing wild in the Tibeto-Himalayan region meant that the healing herb was readily accessible. Its seeds were used to make cooking oil, but the remaining parts of the plant were dedicated to the treatment of skin and lymph disorders, the repair of slow healing wounds, and the maintenance of overall vitality. Other common applications of cannabis in Vajrayana medicine include the treatment of paralysis of the tongue, convulsions, breaking up phlegm, and the termination of delirium during fever Touw, , pp. Tantra, as a relatively coherent set of techniques and practices including deity visualizations and mandala, rituals associated with cremation-grounds and polluting substances linked to sex and death, and internal yogic exercises intended to achieve health, longevity, and liberating insight appear more or less complete by the ninth century Samuel, , 9. This use of ecstatic religious practices and magic ritual has led to speculation that Vajrayana originated in India and is associated with the Vedic soma cults that preceded it. In this way, Tantric practitioners may lay claim to a legacy of cannabis use that begins with references to bhang in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda. The author of Yogaratnamala , a Tantric work dating from the twelfth century and attributed to the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna, recommends the smoke of the cannabis plant to thwart one's enemies Meulenbeld, , p. Tantric texts are also characterized by their preference for peculiar sets of names for cannabis such as trailokyavijaya and sakrasana , but Meulenbeld notes the usage of some 43 synonyms for bhanga that add to the difficulty of definitively tracing the history of cannabis in India and Tibet , p. In their emulation of Indian Tantra, some Vajrayana Buddhists consumed bhang to lower inhibitions during occult sexual exercises believed to facilitate religious awakening. Followers of Buddhist Tantra sometimes known as esoteric Buddhism integrated established Indian practices such as mantra, mandala, fire sacrifices, and soma and cannabis consumption and developed them into a comprehensive religious system Orzech, , pp. In Buddhist Tantra, cannabis is sometimes taken in the context of meditative rituals to facilitate peak consciousness. The potion, made efficacious after uttering several other mantras, heightened the senses and increased a feeling of oneness with the goddess. The religious and secular use of cannabis is so widespread in the Himalayas that it is often taken for granted Touw, , p. Nonetheless, Tibetan medical texts describe the miraculous creation of certain plants through the intervention of divinities and religious personages, and Tibetan healers and religious mendicants rely on many plants growing in the wild, including cannabis, to prepare their remedies and to evoke unitive consciousness Boesi, , para. Some six millennia ago, on the Iranian plateau, a group of Indo-Iranian peoples emerged who made sacrifices to a variety of gods and goddesses, employed a priestly class to oversee those rites, and created a stratified social system that sustained a lifestyle built around the plow. The Avestan language that they used closely resembled Vedic Sanskrit a consequence of shared Indo-Iranian heritage out of which Indian and Iranian cultures evolved separately , and that fact helps to account for correspondences between Vedic religious texts and the Gatha sections of the Avesta or Zend-Avesta , the sacred book of Zoroastrianism. A mixed genre work, the Avesta contains legal, literary, and liturgical writings, in addition to collations of hymns, short prayers, and praise songs used during ritual ceremonies to evoke peak-experiences Ferrara, , p. Like their Indian counterparts, the ancient Iranians venerated sky and Earth gods and goddesses, worshiped ancestors, and participated in cults of fire and water Foltz, , p. Avestan deities maintained a cosmic order based on oppositional forces, and Iranian priests served as libation pourers, keepers of sacred fires, and preservers of powerful chants, charms, and spells. The Gatha sections of the Avesta are contemporaneous with the Rig Veda, and the Zoroastrian deity Mithra exhibits some of the same attributes as the gods Mitra and Varuna in the Rig Veda. At some point, a rivalry between the groups emerged and inaugurated a process of scriptural transmission during which some features of early Vedic culture were preserved by Iranian Zarathustrans, while others were reformed or altogether rejected such as the practice of raiding cattle and the worship of Vedic devas Bryant, , pp. The prophet Zoroaster Zarathustra forever transformed that shared Indo-Iranian tradition by proclaiming the preeminence of the god Ahura Mazda—while diminishing the importance of competing deities and modifying or abandoning certain ritual practices. He reimagined Ahura Mazda as a unitive creative force whereas before him divine agency was diffuse or unattributable. From the Gathas, the part of the Zend-Avesta thought to preserve the words of the tradition's founder, we gather that Zoroaster created important roles for himself as an interpreter of religious commandments and bestower of spiritual instruction. Out of these vocations sprang a set of ethics that emphasized the human capacity to choose between good and evil forces in the world Foltz, , pp. Zoroaster believed that an individual's fate was determined by free will, and that after death, the soul made its way to a river of fire where the god Mithra judged every soul based on its thoughts, words, and deeds in the human world. Mithra therefore embodies an ageless notion of justice. During the Last Judgment in Zoroastrianism, at the end of time, Mithra initiates the final sorting of souls according to deed—an event culminating in a celestial haoma soma sacrifice that ushers in a restoration of an earthly paradise where death is forever vanquished Boyce, , p. The daily duties of Zoroastrian priests revolved around the strict recitation of the Gathas every morning, as well as sections of older Avestan scripture. They were also charged with preparing the yasna sacrifice, and their focus on rituals involving animals and haoma indicate that mystical experiences were evoked through the consumption of plant and fungal substances during sophisticated rituals designed to alter consciousness. There exists little doubt that early Iranians knew the technique of ecstasy through cannabis intoxication, and the importance of that understanding is confirmed by the wide dissemination of the Iranian term for cannabis bangha and its variations throughout central Asia, even though the term probably referred generically to several psychoactive plants—including datura in a similar manner to how soma and haoma were likely constituted from multiple plants. As this religion found itself competing with a host of other traditions including Judaism, Manicheism, and Christianity between the fourth and sixth centuries, Zoroastrianism gradually ceded ground to them, but a hallowed place for cannabis in religious practice continued in the Middle East. Another way that people of the ancient Mediterranean world fostered peak-experiences was through initiation into one of several Mystery traditions, which offered important alternatives to state sponsored religions. Participants underwent ritual purifications, wore charmed amulets, and made offerings at shrines to ward off malevolent influences. Mystery cults, generally speaking, drew from a mixture of traditions including Orientalism but were most often associated with Demeter goddess of the harvest , Dionysus god of wine and theater , and Mithras i. Mithra, god of justice and contractual truth. Mystery rites reached an apex in collective moments of heightened perception, at the center of which were symbolic death and resurrection indicative of peak-experiences. Mystery Cults worked at the intersection of religious intoxication and peak-experiences—and they represent a significant attempt by human beings to reach the divine by all means necessary, including the consumption of entheogens such as cannabis. In this respect, the Eleusinian Mysteries echo Vedic soma rites and Zoroastrian haoma rituals, in so far as they esteem religion a living force that must be experienced directly—and not something abstract, symbolic, or representational. Although the Gnostics and their brand of mystical Christianity largely vanished by the late fourth and early fifth centuries in the wake of doctrinal orthodoxy and the rise of Coptic Christianity sans Gnosticism , a long tradition of desert monasticism endured in Africa that sanctioned religious contemplation in isolation from the world. During this period, many Christian ascetics in Egypt and Ethiopia smoked cannabis from ornamental pipes in order to trigger peak-experiences and to bolster their fortitude during ritual fasts, mortifications, and vigils Hamid, , pp. Even today, during Coptic Christian and Muslim mulids religious festivals in Egypt, one discovers a colorful pastiche of Sufi pilgrims who mix with roaming youth and families as they navigate thick markets, sites of ecstatic piety, popular music concerts, hashish cannabis corners, and moments of solemn commemoration in saint shrines. The Arab invasion of Ethiopia resulted in the destruction of more than 3, Christian churches, and many Copts were forced to relinquish their faith during the rule of the Fatimid caliphs from the tenth to twelfth centuries. Cannabis, however, remained an important psychoactive agent in the medieval Muslim world, and it continued to be credited with opening deeper levels of perception Rosenthal, , p. The traditions of tolerance, love, and self-surrender embedded in Islam gave rise to Sufism, a form of Islamic mysticism emphasizing a personal quest for a direct experience of the divine in the here and now. Broadly speaking, Sufis seek to overcome their lower egoic selves by proceeding through stages of spiritual development under the guidance of a master teacher sheikh to whom obedience is sworn. Sufi aspirants pursue self-annihilation as part of that quest. While strictly speaking there can be no Sufis before the arrival of Islam, the syncretic nature of Sufism brought together contributions from pre-Islamic asceticism, Zoroastrianism, Mithra worship, monastic Christianity, and Neo-Platonism to create an enduring Muslim mystical tradition that emphasizes love and ecstatic communion with God Milani, , pp. An injunction against intoxicants in the Quran means that most Muslims eschew alcohol, but cannabis falls into a nebulous area where it is socially accepted by many Islamic groups but disdained or prohibited by others. Even so, the use of cannabis for medicinal, religious, esthetic, and social purposes is well documented. Intoxicated Sufis attained divine perception through the repetitive recitation of prayer formulas, the continual remembrance of God, energetic dancing and whirling, and playing or listening to religious music. Writers such as Al-Ghazali rose to defend controversial Sufi religious practices including the ritual ingestion of cannabis against attack from the more orthodox forces that would see them abolished as blasphemies. Peak-experiences, which represent an important response to the panhuman yearning for paradise, must be deepened through spiritual exercises such as meditation to bring presence and mindfulness more permanently to the fore of consciousness. The Sufi insistence on making cannabis part of spiritual practice is attributable to the fact that, in the right-minded person, cannabis facilitates a heightened state of concentration that can deepen contemplation. It bestows feelings of jocularity and amiability Khalifa, , p. These same qualities made the plant popular among Sufis living communally, and they helped to guarantee a space for the creative expression of their musicians, dancers, poets, and artists. Mystic devotees from Syria during the mid-twelfth century employed cannabis in religious and communal settings to increase sociability, activate intelligence, stir jocularity, and encourage meditativeness Khalifa, , p. Its prevalence led the thirteenth-century Spanish historian Ibn Sa'id to bewail hashish consumption in Egypt, and his contemporary, the physician Ibn al-Baytar, reported seeing Sufis in that country eating baked cannabis leaves rolled into paste pills Rosenthal, , pp. It is also possible that Arab merchants brought the plant to Africa via trade routes, across the Red Sea and down the coast of Eastern Africa, during a short-lived but powerful late-medieval world system. From there, it gradually spread to Bantu speakers in the interior and therefore was in use in the Zambezi River valley by the time the Portuguese arrived in Swahili-speaking traders likely spread it westward Warf, , p. Morocco also has a long history of cultivation and consumption of kif , a mix of tobacco and dried cannabis, smoked in a pipe called a sebti. In fifteenth century Morocco, the increasing recreational use of cannabis led to the cultivation of the plant on a small scale in many private gardens and orchards Afsahi and Darwich, , p. As cannabis continued its journey to other regions of the continent, it was blended with native herbs and formed into powders and pastes for eating, inhaling, or smoking. The oldest smoking pipes from sub-saharan Africa date from the early fifth century BCE, as much as two millennia before Europeans encountered American Indian pipes packed with tobacco Duvall, , p. Before cannabis came on the scene, indigenous peoples smoked datura, though a surge in pipe use in eastern African sites after the tenth century may suggest the diffusion the cannabis Duvall, , p. African shamans, native medical practitioners given to mysticism, were authorized by their peers to practice herbal medicine, divination, invocation, magic, and prayer. They administered psychoactive decoctions in the form of enemas, snuff, or oral doses and listened attentively to the uninhibited narratives of medicated patients for clues concerning the origins of their illnesses Sofowora, , p. Cannabis also found an important place in community rituals designed to evoke spirits of the ancestors and to placate them with its sweet incense. In southern Africa, the plant is called dagga, in western Africa diamba or riamba , and in the east-central region of the continent bangi from the Sanskrit bhanga Du Toit, , p. Such variations in nomenclature provide a unique perspective on the movement of cannabis from India to Africa alongside Arab merchants and religious mendicants. Bantu-speaking tribes—who spread over a vast area from Central to Southern Africa—valued cannabis as a panacea, finding it effectual in treating asthma, malaria, blood poisoning, snakebites, and a host of other maladies. The savants of Zululand were dagga smokers who burned cannabis flowers through large water pipes. In times of crisis, these sages cured disease and prophesized the future—and perhaps as a consequence of that relationship to sagacity, cannabis continues to be associated with knowledge, discernment, and astuteness in southern Africa Ferrara, , p. Generally speaking, Native African peoples believed that ancestor spirits acted in the world of the living, and that death simply marked a transition from one world to the next. Boundaries separating realms of the living, unborn, and dead—like those of the sky, human world, and underworld—were envisioned as highly permeable, and their myths of creation focused around primordial beings who created humankind and imparted the essential skills of hunting and reproduction Olupona, , pp. According to that worldview, every living and inanimate object is holy. Since certain herbs tended to be venerated, a comprehensive understanding of them remained a prerequisite for any diviner or priest Olupona, , p. When reality is thus conceived as intersecting patterns of energies apprehended subjectively, all things are perceived as localized objects embedded in a web of relationships Bynum, , pp. Ample evidence exists for the use of psychotropic plants by several Native American cultures dating from before the Spanish conquest of Mexico — One of the earliest sacred plants was the neurotoxic Sophora secundiflora used by Paleoamericans of the desert of northern Mexico and southern Texas approximately ten thousand years ago Diaz, , p. Adopted by Native American shamans into a tradition that included the ritual use of psychedelics such as peyote, DMT, and a variety of mushrooms to elicit peak-experiences as a modality of healing, cannabis spread throughout North and South America. Like the Mediterranean Mystery traditions, Native American shamanistic initiations are shrouded in secret rites, but they might involve a candidate's symbolic death and resurrection, ecstatic visits to lands of the Dead or Sky, the insertion of magical substances into the initiate's body, the revelation of clandestine doctrines, and instruction in techniques of curative healing Eliade, , pp. In cannabis, the Tepehuan Indians of Mexico discovered an occasional substitute for the peyote that they collected for sacrosanct ceremonies Lee, , pp. In some of their rituals which blended aboriginal beliefs with Christian symbolism , the Tepehuan placed the contents of bundles of paper on an altar. The Sacred Rose would rest there, surrounded by small bells, incense holders, and whistles that served as objects of attention for attendants who made daily offerings or provided ceremonial water refreshments Williams-Garcia, , pp. The Tepecano of northwestern Mexico called cannabis Rosa Maria and occasionally used it as a substitute for peyote MacRae, , p. Since it competed with stronger entheogens, including peyote and mescaline, cannabis did not always arrive at the center of religious rites in the Americas, although the Cuna Indians of Panama were known to smoke cannabis communally in tribal meetings, and the Cora Indians in the Sierra Madre Occidental turned to it when indigenous plant herbs became unavailable Booth, , p. Cannabis seeds may have entered Brazil as early as the mid-sixteenth century from West Africa with victims of the European slave trade, possibly sewn into cloth dolls that were tied to the rag tag clothing worn by slaves Hutchinson, , p. Several Brazilian religious groups made controlled ritual use of the entheogen ayahuasca to evoke peak-experiences and shamanistic visions. Ayahuasca became a central sacrament in a number of syncretic religions mixing Catholicism, Spiritism, African religiosity, and Native American shamanism , which originated among Amazonian rubber tappers and then spread to the urban middle classes in Brazil, and later overseas MacRae, , p. Another sacramental substance also worshiped by the followers of one of Santo Daime's branches is Santa Maria or cannabis. If silence was not kept, the partakers had to at least keep the conversation on a high spiritual level MacRae, , p. Long before Christopher Columbus spotted Jamaica on his second voyage in , the aboriginal Arawak and Taino peoples inhabited the island. The Spanish, in whose name Columbus claimed Jamaica, settled the island for approximately years before the British gained control. During the eighteenth century, Jamaica attracted settlers eager to establish plantations to produce sugarcane, but in order to make their large establishments profitable, colonists required an abundant supply of cheap labor—and so they imported slaves from colonial operations in Africa. Those hapless individuals abducted from their homes and sold into slavery in Jamaica introduced some cultural features of their homelands, including their languages, religions, and musical traditions. They brought art, song, dance, and food traditions related to ceremonial rituals marking the human passage from birth to death too, as well as a respect for elders in the community and a heightened sensitivity to the natural processes of the Earth and cosmos Ferrara, , p. With the prohibition of slavery on the island in , plantation owners imported indentured laborers from India and China. As cannabis circulated through the lower classes of Jamaican society, it infiltrated black communities and gained popularity in the countryside and in the poor districts of larger towns Boekhout van Solinge, , pp. Due to the logistical challenges of operating large-scale plantation estates requiring skilled workers, British colonists began to educate children of free slaves and indentured laborers to cultivate the land, to keep plantation accounts, and to protect their private property Deirdre, , p. Despite those advantages over field work, low wages, limits on land ownership, high poll taxes, and widespread racism led to social uprisings, such as the Morant Bay Rebellion in Although by that time slavery had been abolished for a generation, the ideology of dominance remained rooted in the planter psyche, and stark differences in levels of wealth and power persisted among social classes in Jamaica Delle, , p. By , members of the Jamaican working class were predominantly black of either African or Indian heritage , while members of the employing class estate owners, merchants, and manufacturers were largely white Richards, , p. The Revival Zionism that emerged from the Christianization of Jamaican blacks continued a form of opposition against, and moral condemnation of, white Christianity for not prohibiting slavery—and therefore Revivalism thrived among the underclasses Guano, , p. The religious black consciousness movement known as Rastafari took shape in the s and s under the leadership of Marcus Garvey, who denounced the poor treatment of blacks in Jamaica and in the United States as he advocated for black nationalism and Pan-Africanism Boekhout van Solinge, , p. With the accession in Ethiopia of prince Ras Tafari later crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I , whom they endowed with divinity, Garvey's followers determined to throw off the shackles of British imperial culture, to reappropriate a severed African heritage for the purpose of empowering the underclasses in Jamaican society, and to ultimately repatriate to Zion Africa. During the following century, the Rastafarian movement spread throughout the Caribbean and took hold in Britain, in the United States, and in West Africa. Consequently, the Rastafarian nation is a diverse one, with many leaders, rituals, and religious convictions. Rastafarians possess a keen reverence for nature and natural living, and this attitude towards the environment manifests itself in the production of organic foods sometimes grown in self-sufficient cooperatives that harken back to village lifestyles in Africa. After jettisoning some of the features of Revivalism that initially enthused the group, Rastafarians defined themselves against the status quo as members of an African-Jamaican underclass. The second generation of Rastafarians turned more militant, and they earned the ire of a government blindly following the unenlightened drug policies of the United States. This new generation elevated ganja smoking to a sacred ritual, and Rastafarians spurned razor blades and hair clippers in favor of tangled dreads and unkempt beards. For nearly all Rastafarians, cannabis is the supreme herb, and they ingest it as a medicine in tea and food and give it a prominent place in ritual communal activities. According to Jamaican folk belief, cannabis possesses many medical attributes: most notably fortifying the blood, warding off disease, and promoting good health and well-being as a prophylactic and therapeutic. Many cannabis preparations are credited with allowing one to work longer, harder, and faster and with increased overall stamina and vigor. In tea or tonic form, the plant is credited with preventing constipation, treating gonorrhea, curing arthritis, improving vision, and even making children smarter. Resinous flowers find their way into soups and stews, while stalks and leaves are added to teas. Some boil cannabis leaves to make soup-broths, but they are also cooked like spinach and fed to children. While there is no limit to the amount of cannabis they may imbibe, Rastas scorn other intoxicants, including alcohol and manufactured drugs. For most Rastafarians, cannabis is tantamount to the Tree of Life given to human beings by a benevolent creator to ensure good health and mental clarity. Many of these attributes are the same ones by which society may be positively transformed. Given that human society is ultimately a set of relationships—the quality of which reflect our inner selves, as more individuals learn to identify, cultivate, and prolong peak-experiences, we stand to witness considerable social betterment. Once their basic needs for safety, belongingness, love, respect, and self-esteem are met, healthy individuals become self-actualized, meaning that they realize their potentials, capacities, and talents often as a mission call, vocation, fate, or destiny. Self-actualizers also enjoy a higher frequency of peak-experiences and possess superior perceptions of reality, and they exhibit more democratic personality structures, greater autonomy and resistance to cultural norms, heightened detachment and desire for privacy, and they tend to be unusually accepting of self, others, and nature Ferrara, , p. Once we have risen to self-actualization, our experiences on other levels are transformed as well, for the lower levels are contained within the higher ones, like a set of Russian dolls Rowan, , While we never lose our lower level needs completely, they become less influential as we grow beyond the need to derive our esteem from other people or to take from them our status and social role. At every point in the hierarchy, Maslow contends, we have a choice between deficiency motivation and abundance motivation, between safety and growth Rowan, , Individuals who move beyond self-actualization to arrive at the top of Maslow's later version of the hierarchy of needs have a strong drive toward self-transcendence through mystical or transpersonal religious experiences which make them seek identification with something greater than themselves. Self-transcendent people are motivated by something beyond basic needs, and the inclusion of self-transcendence in Maslow's hierarchy of needs points toward the centrality of peak-experiences to the optimally functioning person, and it permits a richer conception of the meaning and purpose of life Koltko-Rivera, , p. Including a final step of self-transcendence also allows the application of long-standing motivational theories to some aspects of religious practice and experience—and it permits the understanding of how peak-experiences can be positively associated with mental health Koltko-Rivera, , p. William Richards at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, who served as Maslow's research assistant from to , remembers that only an acute cardiac condition kept Maslow from ingesting a psychedelic substance himself, but he was very interested in the rapidly expanding field of psychedelic studies. In terms of the role of endogenous cannabinoids and endogenously produced DMT in the human body, and their possible contribution to spontaneously occurring peak-experiences, the endogenous compound anandamide functions in tandem with cannabinoid receptors to produce euphoric feelings similar to those elicited by exogenous cannabinoids such as marijuana Acharya et al. Observations regarding the psychedelic effects of the administration of DMT have led to speculation that endogenous DMT may be involved in imagination and dream states, the maintenance of waking reality, and altered states of consciousness including peak and near-death experiences Barker, , p. While researchers have puzzled over the biological role of endogenous entheogens for over fifty years, legal restrictions have limited their availability for scientific research, and therefore the function of endogenous hallucinogens such as DMT remains a mystery Wallach, , Even so, the human search for chemically enhanced consciousness as a conduit to experiencing the divine is nearly universal in human culture and psychedelics have impacted the development of religion by providing access to alternate states of consciousness conducive to spiritual awakening. These transcendental states fundamentally transform one's understanding of the natural world, and one's place in it, regardless of whether they are evoked through intense travail, religious practice, or the ingestion of chemical agents. Although the historical evidence for the entheogenic use of cannabis can sometimes be difficult to corroborate, it seems clear that the milder and gentler cannabis plant offers access to many of the therapeutic benefits of stronger entheogens, including self-transcendence, when combined with concentrated activities such as meditation, contemplative prayer, fasting, and other spiritual practices. Abel , E. Marihuana: The first twelve thousand years. New York : Springer. Acharya , N. Endocannabinoid system acts as a regulator of immune homeostasis in the gut. Afsahi K. Hashish in Morocco and Lebanon: A comparative study. International Journal of Drug Policy , 31 , — Aldrich , M. Tantric cannabis use in India. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs , 9 3 , — Arie , E. Cannabis and frankincense at the Judahite Shrine of Arad. Barker , S. N, N-dimethyltryptamine DMT , an endogenous hallucinogen: Past, present, and future research to determine its role and function. 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New York : John Wiley and Sons. Steindl-Rast , D. Psychoactive substances and sacred values: Reconsidering Abraham Maslow's discoveries. Harold Ellens Ed. Santa Barbara : Praeger. Touw , M. The religious and medical uses of cannabis in China, India, and Tibet. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 13 1 , 23 — Waley , A. The book of songs. Wallach , J. Endogenous hallucinogens as ligands of the trace amine receptors: A possible role in sensory perception. Medical Hypotheses , 72 1 , 91 — Warf , B. High points: An historical geography of cannabis. Geographical Review , 4 , — Watts , A. The joyous cosmology: Adventures in the chemistry of consciousness. New York : New World. Williams-Garcia , R. The ritual use of cannabis in Mexico. Znamenski , A. The beauty of the primitive: Shamanism and Western imagination. Attila Szabo - University of Oslo. E-mail address: attilasci gmail. Attila Szabo University of Oslo. Sign in Sign up. Advanced Search Help. Journal of Psychedelic Studies. Peak-experience and the entheogenic use of cannabis in world religions. Author: Mark S. Ferrara Mark S. Open access. Download PDF. Check for updates. Maslow's concept of peak-experience Although possessing notably milder psychoactive properties than other psychedelics, such as psilocybin and mescaline, cannabis has a long history as an entheogen in the religious and curative traditions of Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and the Americas. Cannabis in the Americas Ample evidence exists for the use of psychotropic plants by several Native American cultures dating from before the Spanish conquest of Mexico — The Rastafarians Long before Christopher Columbus spotted Jamaica on his second voyage in , the aboriginal Arawak and Taino peoples inhabited the island. Crossref Abel , E. Crossref Acharya , N. Crossref Afsahi K. Crossref Aldrich , M. Crossref Arie , E. Crossref Barker , S. Crossref Boesi , A. Crossref Brown K. Crossref Bryant , E. Crossref Clarke , R. Crossref Diaz , J. Crossref Du Toit , B. Crossref Duncan , M. Crossref Edmonds , E. Crossref Eliade , M. Crossref Godlaski , T. Crossref Hutchinson , H. Crossref Khalifa , A. Crossref Koltko-Rivera , M. Crossref Kuddus , M. Crossref Long , T. Crossref McRae , E. Crossref Olupona , J. Crossref Orzech , C. Crossref Ramzy , C. Crossref Richards , W. Crossref Rosenthal , F. Crossref Rowan , J. Crossref Russo , E. Crossref Samuel , G. Crossref Scherma , M. Crossref Scott , D. Crossref Touw , M. Crossref Wallach , J. Crossref Warf , B. Crossref Williams-Garcia , R. Crossref Znamenski , A. Export References. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Online ISSN: Attila Szabo University of Oslo E-mail address: attilasci gmail. Long-lasting analgesic effect of the psychedelic drug changa : A case report. Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for trauma-exposed patients in an outpatient setting: A clinical chart review study. Authors: Alan K. Pratheek Mangini. Yitong Xin. Authors: Zoe W. Joel Lopez. Sara de la Salle. Sonya Faber. Monnica T. A potential role for psilocybin in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Author: Edward Jacobs. Author: Sam Gandy. Authors: Elizabeth M. Jeffrey Guss. The oldest archeological data evidencing the relationship of Homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: A worldwide overview. Author: Giorgio Samorini. Authors: Andrew Yockey. Keith King. An ontology of psychedelic entity experiences in evolutionary psychology and neurophenomenology. Author: Michael James Winkelman. Subjective effectiveness of ibogaine treatment for problematic opioid consumption: Short- and long-term outcomes and current psychological functioning. Joseph P. Austin-Marley Windham-Herman. Marta Lynch. Martin Polanco. Our Blog Akademiai. Sign in to annotate. Delete Cancel Save. Cancel Save. View Expanded. View Table. View Full Size.

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