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Manipulation of growth and development of cannabis Cannabis sativa L. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of LED spectral changes on reactive oxygen species ROS and cannabinoid accumulation by provoking growth, pigmentation, photosynthesis, and secondary metabolites production of cannabis grown in an indoor environment. A high concentration of H 2 O 2 was also observed in L3 and L4 treatments which provoked lipid peroxidation in later growth stage. In addition, higher accumulation of cannabinoid was observed under L4 treatment in most cases. It is also evident that higher ROS created a cellular stress in plant as indicated by higher osmolyte synthesis and enzyme activity which initiate quick maturation along with higher cannabinoids accumulation in cannabis plant. Therefore, it can be concluded that ROS metabolism has a crucial role in morpho-physiological acclimation and cannabinoid accumulation in hemp plants. The findings of this study provide further insight on the use of LED light to maximize the production of cannabinoid. Light is the unique source of energy for photosynthesis and acts as a driving force for plant growth. The quality, quantity and duration of light are useful input materials that regulate not only the growth and development of plants but also ensure their sustainable production under environmental conditions Jenkins and Livesay, Growing plants under artificial light allow growers to maintain horticultural traits, including plant morphology, growth habits, flowering, quality and endpoint plant productivity Rodriguez-Morrison et al. However, comprehensive knowledge regarding the light requirements of various plant species for optimum growth and the impact of light intensity as well as spectral composition on plant metabolism and nutritional status is still insufficient Monostori et al. Cannabis Cannabis sativa L. The high light intensity with proper photoperiod is needed during the vegetative growth stage to maximize cannabis growth and to initiate the budding Arnold, In this context, the quality of LED had a significant impact on cannabis production as LED fixtures can be made with unique spectra that have the potential to increase the quality and targetted yield Magagnini et al. Moreover, a considerable change in shoot architecture, inflorescence mass and the alteration in the content of cannabinoids, terpenes, and other bioactive properties of the plant extracts may significantly vary on LED light composition Namdar et al. Light systems for cannabis cultivation need to ensure quality and quantity to maximize plant productivity and achieve a high level of secondary metabolite production Jenkins and Livesay, The quality and intensity of light should consider the physiological and photosynthetic enhancement to ensure maximum, uniform, and consistent productivity with minimum deleterious effects of high leaf temperature Greer et al. Although cannabis plants are well known for a high degree of plasticity concerning the light spectrum intensity, evidence proved that compatible spectra could maintain leaf temperature within an optimal range to ensure maximum photosynthetic rate Jenkins and Livesay, For this reason, understanding the spectral quality in photosynthesis is critical when selecting a lighting system with proper light quality and quantity for any indoor cultivation. Cannabis produces unique secondary metabolites called cannabinoid containing alkylresorcinol and monoterpene groups that have a tremendous interest due to their pharmacological activities, such as psychoactive and analgesic effects Mechoulam, ; Shoyama et al. For this reason, cannabinoid have attracted a great deal of attention, whereas LED light combination that produces higher metabolites demands more research from a different perspective. Moreover, in recent studies, cannabis plants produced higher secondary metabolites under abiotic stress conditions Caplan et al. ROS are the molecules that include highly reactive free radicals e. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to examine the effects of light-spectral quality on growth-related morpho-physiological traits of cannabis and cannabinoid content and also disclose their relationship with ROS metabolism. The seedlings were irrigated daily using tap water to the field capacity level. After three weeks of growth, the seedlings were transferred to the plant factory for treating under 4 LED lights. The nutrient element concentration g L -1 in the system was: Ca NO 3. The E. The plant factory was designed for an automatic system where nutrient formulated water was injected into the plant root zone growing pot for twenty seconds every two minutes. Data were collected at 30, 60, and 90 days after treatment DAT. For this reason, few of the biochemical and morphological parameters were omitted under L3 and L4 treatments. Figure 1 Different LED light used in the study. The third leaf from the top was selected for measuring the length and width of the leaves. The measurements of gas exchange were carried out at the mid-day between Malondialdehyde MDA was measured to determine the lipid peroxidation in the hemp leaves. For MDA assay, mg fresh leaf sample was ground in 5 mL of 0. The resulting mixture was centrifuged again at rpm for 15 min, and the absorbance was taken at nm and nm. The H 2 O 2 content was estimated according to the method developed by Singh et al. Then 0. After that, 1 mL of 1 M KI was added to the mixture and placed in a dark place 1 h for incubation. The absorbance was measured at nm, where a standard H 2 O 2 curve was prepared to calculate the concentration of H 2 O 2 in the sample. A mg sample was homogenized in 5 mL of 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer solution pH 7. The reaction mixture for estimating SOD contained 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer with 0. The tubes were shaken and irradiated under the fluorescent light 15 W for 15 min. The absorbance was taken at nm by a spectrophotometer. After filtration through a syringe filter 0. The detection wavelength was used nm with three biological replications. The data were analyzed using SAS 9. A one-way analysis of variance among the light treatments within each time for all graphs, while a two-way analysis of variance among the light treatments and time of observations were done for the table. In case of Car, the maximum increment was recorded in L3 Results also showed that L3 and L4 treatments manifested maximum reduction of Chl a Results showed that L3 and L4 treatments manifested the maximum increase of A On the other hand, the maximum increase of quantum yield was recorded in L1 7. On the other hand, the maximum increase of MDA was found in L3 On the other hand, the concentration of TSC increased maximum in L1 From the results, plants attained significantly higher activity of CAT in the treatment L4 On the other hand, no significant change was observed in case of SOD activity at any level of observation. Results also showed that THC increased by The correlation between the growth variables, photosynthetic traits, biochemical attributes, and secondary metabolites of hemp plants was ascertained. The entire experimental data were subjected to a principal component analysis based on the clustering method Figure 8. The lines starting from the central point of the biplots display negative or positive associations of different variables, and their proximity specifies the degree of correlation with a specific treatment. Light is an essential environmental factor that affects plant growth and development, and plants respond to light variations to complete their life cycle. The light-emitting diode LED is an energy-efficient and rapidly developing lighting technology used widely nowadays. Irradiance with various spectral range and their combinations lead to a change in plant photosynthesis that ultimately plays a crucial role in plant establishment and the composition of secondary metabolites Wei et al. From the results of the present study, a higher growth rate was observed in L3 In the treatment L2, despite having higher increment rate, hemp attained comparative lower value of morphological characteristics where an additional FR light was used along with others. In general, plants grown under red light show higher shoot length than blue Rabara et al. Although, green light is considered less effective for plant growth since plant photosynthetic pigments have limited absorbance for these wavelengths. However, there is evidence that a low percentage of green light influences plant morphology, including leaf growth, stomatal conductance, and early stem elongation Kim et al. Besides, blue and UV-A trigger cryptochrome and phototropin that regulate chloroplast relocation, elongation, stomatal opening and photosynthesis Schwartz and Zeiger, These hypotheses support our findings as L3 and L4 treatments consist of a high percentage of red light, whereas L1 consists of a combination of red, blue, and green light Figure 9. The chlorophyll measurement is a reliable tool that is commonly used as evidence of plant growth and vigour, where its concentration has a high correlation with photosynthesis mechanisms Rabara et al. In the present study, the treatment L3 consisted of a relatively lower percentage of blue light that influenced the low accumulation of Chl a , Chl b , and Car at 30 and 90 DAT, while it influenced the higher accumulation of all pigments at 60 DAT. These results indicate a shorter life cycle and early senescing or chlorosis by the effect of light treatment on plants Figure 3. Similar results were also observed in L4 treatment where plants gradually decreased all pigments compared to others. However, plants accumulated a maximum concentration of pigments at 90 DAT. Previous results obtained in Tripterospermum japonicum and Lippiaalba showed that chlorophyll accumulation was influenced by a mixture of red and blue light Moon et al. Besides, the addition of low-energy far-red light to the growth spectrum along with the high proportion of blue light may increase photosynthetic pigment concentration and gas exchange Kong and Nemali, UV-A radiation was also described to enhance photosynthetic pigments in lettuce Chen et al. Despite low absorbance, green light penetrates deeper and excites chlorophyll, and at high PPFD, it may achieve higher photosynthetic efficiency due to the uniform absorption throughout leaves Liu and van Iersel. Another study on lettuce described that photosynthetic pigments, absorption of PPFD, and CO 2 assimilation ratio showed a remarkable decrease under the LED spectra lacking green light when compared to a broad spectrum of LED light Liu et al. These results comply with our findings as L1 and L2 treatments showed higher pigments accumulation, where green, UV-A, and FR were used as supplementary with red and green. Photosynthesis plays an important role in plant growth and development due to its direct connection with productivity in a given environment Eichhorn Bilodeau et al. A similar observation was also observed in plant growth and pigments accumulation. From these results, it is plausible that plants grown under red and blue spectra achieved quick maturity with a short life cycle. Photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplast of palisade and spongy mesophyll cells in epidermal layers of leaves Mishra, In general, a higher photosynthetic rate can be achieved under red light, while blue light induces the strongest preferential excitation of PS II Hogewoning et al. Besides, a high rate of leaf abscission was assumed Batista et al. Light wavelength and intensity that provokes photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis are widely used to quantify the light in the experiment related to plant-light interaction Eichhorn et al. Each spectral band of light can induce specific mechanisms and responses in the plant, affecting subsequent plant responses to stress Bayat et al. Due to the high sensitivity to the spectral distribution, plants perceive the change in light spectra and intensity through several protein photoreceptors Fankhauser and Chory, Comparative lower accumulation of H 2 O 2 6. From these results, we assumed a higher toxic effect on hemp plants under those light treatments. Previous studies explained the relationship between cell death and cannabinoid accumulation in hemp plants, especially the role of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid THCA Shoyama et al. It was also stated that cannabinoids induce cell death independently of the H 2 O 2 -regulated cell death system, and this induction of cell death is not suppressed by pretreatment of H 2 O 2 -scavenging agents such as ascorbic acid Morimoto et al. However, a positive correlation was also found among the cannabinoids, H 2 O 2 , and lipid peroxidation under several light spectra Islam et al. Proline accumulation increased linearly as transplanting time increased up to 60 DAT, and then it tended to decrease for L1, L2 and L3 treatments, whereas L4 kept the uprising up to 90 DAT. In general, the synthesis and catabolism of proline help to buffer cellular redox potential and thus play a vital role in the stress adaptation of plants. It also scavenges free radicals and stabilizes sub-cellular structures despite playing the role of osmolyte under stress conditions Hayat et al. Higher photosynthetic rate and stable pigments showed a compatible increment of proline up to 60 DAT in the present study. Similar results were also observed in case of ascorbic acid, TSC and sucrose. Carbohydrates play an active role in energy as well as principle criteria of cellular activity like cell division and growth in plants, where their concentration mostly depends on photosynthetic activity Naithani et al. In the present experiment, a lower concentration of carbohydrates like TSC and sucrose under L3 and L4 treatments at 90 DAT indicates a stressful condition that might result from lower chlorophyll generation in plants Figure 3. This contrariety may be due to the shortening life cycle of the plant as a result of the stress response, which is supported by the maximum concentration of proline and TPC at 90 DAT under L4 treatment. The modulation of light quality significantly influenced the activities of antioxidant enzymes. In general, the increased ROS accumulation triggers the activities of antioxidant enzymes to prevent cell damage due to oxidative stress. This higher activity was also partially supported by the ROS production under the treatments L3 and L4. On the other hand, the increased activity of POD was also described as associated with the increased lipid peroxidation level Shah et al. The higher ratio of red light under L3 and L4 treatments may have an influential role on higher enzymatic activities, as similar findings were reported in a previous study on wheat plants Hui et al. Earlier studies also indicated that the regulation of ROS and their interaction with the antioxidant system are important mechanisms affecting plant growth and morphogenesis Gupta and Agarwal, ; Xu et al. Despite little or no data available regarding the expression of these genes, in higher plants, some type III PKS such as chalone synthase CHS , related to polyphenol accumulation, was substantially induced by light Flores-Sanchez and Verpoorte, Plants use a complex photoreceptor system to perceive different wavelengths of light, activating various signal transduction cascades by transcriptional factors to regulate light responses. Moreover, under L3 and L4 treatments, plants produced From the results, it was also plausible that the presence of UV-A and FR might have an influential role in cannabinoid accumulation. Besides, the lower accumulation of cannabinoid in L1 except THC might be due to the higher proportion of green light as it was assumed to influence cannabinoid negatively Mahlberg and Hemphill, Environmental stress or a specific wavelength of light excites the photosensitizer that disturbs the balance between light harvesting and energy utilization, and this imbalance provokes 3 Chl formation, which reacts with ground state triplet oxygen 3 O 2 to produce singlet oxygen 1 O 2. Besides, higher lipid peroxidation and enzyme activity in the treatment L4 were also observed at 30 and 60 DAT. However, the treatment L3 accumulated a bit lower cannabinoid despite having higher stress response activity such as H 2 O 2 , MDA, and enzymes. Cannabinoid are well-known secondary metabolites with high antioxidant activity Mukhopadhyay et al. In the presence of higher ROS concentration, it might have a crucial role in bringing balance to the light-harvesting and energy utilization process. Although a previous study suggested that cannabinoid induces cell death independently of the H 2 O 2 -regulated cell death system Morimoto et al. LED light composition showed a stringent regulation of cannabis growth, development and metabolite accumulation. An increasing trend of photosynthetic pigments and photosynthetic activity were also observed up to 60 DAT in L3 and L4 light compositions, which was further drastically reduced to a minimum level at 90 DAT. In addition, a higher tendency of H 2 O 2 generation was recorded in L3 and L4 treatments, which influenced higher lipid peroxidation resulting in leaf necrosis and plant death in the later growth stage. The results of this study can be used in cannabis industry to maximize the production of cannabinoid through the modulation of spectral composition. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. Conceptualization: MI and BR. Methodology: MI and BR. Formal analysis: MI and BR. Data curation: MI and BR. Statistical expertise: MI and BR. Visualization: MI and BR. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The authors also express their gratitude and profound appreciation to the CBF Chuncheon Bioindustry Foundation, Korea and Chuncheon City for their support in hemp variety breeding project. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Arnold, J. 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Cannabinoid accumulation in hemp depends on ROS generation and interlinked with morpho-physiological acclimation and plasticity under indoor LED environment.