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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. This followed attempts to prosecute entrepreneurs who were openly selling cannabis flower and other extracts. The sellers claimed that these cannabis products contained less than 0. The Italian Law of states that cultivation of certain varieties of hemp plants containing less than 0. It is not yet known how this last phrase will be interpreted. Under Swedish law industrial hemp, defined as any variety of cannabis eligible for EU support, is exempt from the narcotic control laws. However, the oil contained THC the concentration was not determined. THC and preparations containing it are covered by the narcotic control laws. The offender was charged with a minor case of possession of a controlled drug a preparation of THC. The court ruled that, while industrial hemp is exempted from coverage, preparations made from it that contain THC are not exempted, and are therefore included in narcotic control laws. To schedule interviews, obtain informed comment, request written contributions or receive the latest news on the agency, please contact our media relations sector:. Kathy Robertson Principal manager Media relations and corporate communication. Email: Kathy Robertson. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. Italy and Sweden: court decisions on low-THC cannabis products. Location Lisbon. Publication date. Main subject. Previous slide. Next slide. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug overdose deaths in Europe. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic substances. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer among people who inject drugs. Wastewater analysis and drugs — explore the latest data. Cannabis laws in Europe: questions and answers for policymaking.

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Contributors: SZ contributed to the conception of the study, data analysis, and drafting of the manuscript. PA contributed to the conception and design of the study, and drafting of the manuscript. SA contributed to the conception and design of the study, and drafting of the manuscript. IL contributed to the design of the study and drafting of the manuscript. GL contributed to the conception of the study, data analysis, and drafting of the manuscript. SZ is the guarantor. An association between use of cannabis in adolescence and subsequent risk of schizophrenia was previously reported in a follow up of Swedish conscripts. Arguments were raised that this association may be due to use of drugs other than cannabis and that personality traits may have confounded results. We performed a further analysis of this cohort to address these uncertainties while extending the follow up period to identify additional cases. Cannabis was associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia in a dose dependent fashion both for subjects who had ever used cannabis adjusted odds ratio for linear trend of increasing frequency 1. Similar results were obtained when analysis was restricted to subjects developing schizophrenia after five years after conscription, to exclude prodromal cases. Cannabis use is associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia, consistent with a causal relation. This association is not explained by use of other psychoactive drugs or personality traits relating to social integration. Alternative explanations for this association include confounding by personality or by use of other drugs such as amphetamines, and use of cannabis as a form of self medication secondary to the disorder. Self reported cannabis use is associated with an increased risk of subsequently developing schizophrenia, consistent with a causal relation. This association is not explained by sociability personality traits, or by use of amphetamines or other drugs. The relation between cannabis use and subsequent onset of psychosis is complex. An association between self reported use of cannabis in adolescence and subsequent risk of schizophrenia was reported from a cohort study of Swedish conscripts, 4 which supports the view that cannabis might act as an independent risk factor for schizophrenia. Several uncertainties have, however, been raised regarding the interpretation of this result. Firstly, the apparent effect of cannabis may be caused by other drugs such as amphetamines that are more likely to have been misused among cannabis users than among non-users. Traits relating to social behaviour are likely to be particularly important in this respect. We are not aware of any other cohort studies that have investigated the association between drug use and subsequent risk of schizophrenia, and case-control studies are susceptible to recall bias. In this study we perform a further analysis of the Swedish conscript cohort to address some of the above concerns. The conscription procedure included intelligence tests and non-anonymous self reported questionnaires on family, social background, behaviour during adolescence, and substance use—including first drug used, drug most commonly used, frequency of use, and direct questions regarding use of a list of specified drugs. Details of the procedure and results of studies of its validity have been reported previously. All subjects underwent a structured interview conducted by a psychologist, and those reporting any psychiatric symptoms were interviewed by a psychiatrist and given a diagnosis according to ICD-8 international classification of diseases, 8th revision where applicable. Permission to use the anonymised database was granted by the Karolinska Institute research ethics committee and the Swedish data inspection board. The linkage reported here was from to The incomplete registration during some periods is unlikely to have affected the results. Outcomes investigated were schizophrenia codes It is unlikely that cases diagnosed as schizophrenia in this cohort were either toxic psychoses induced by cannabis or amphetamine or acute, transient drug induced psychoses, given the restrictive tradition in Sweden regarding the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Odds ratios may be interpreted as rate ratios because schizophrenia is a rare outcome. Previous research has found that psychiatric diagnosis at conscription, IQ score, personality variables concerned with interpersonal relationships, place of upbringing, paternal age, and cigarette smoking are all associated with schizophrenia. Disturbed behaviour in childhood, history of alcohol misuse, family history of psychiatric illness, financial situation of the family, and father's occupation were also considered to be potential confounders and included in the analysis. The variable relating to poor social integration as an aspect of personality was a summed score of questions regarding number of close friends, history of relationships with girlfriends, and individual sensitivity. We selected these questions after a factor analysis of over 40 questions relating to childhood and adolescent behaviour from one of the questionnaires. Data on drug use, derived from all sources of information, were missing on 16 4. Of 11 variables initially included as potential confounders, only five had any effect on the adjusted results. Table 1 shows a summary of these in relation to cannabis use. Adjusting for poor social integration made minimal difference to results but is also included in table 1. For the purposes of table 1 only, we treated IQ score, poor social integration, and disturbed behaviour as dichotomous variables, using the 10th percentile as a cut-off point for coding. Summary of confounders in relation to subjects' history of drug use at conscription. Values are numbers percentages of cohort sample. Owing to missing data for each of the confounders, the precentages presented may not tally precisely with the numbers of subjects reported. Altogether subjects The crude odds ratio for developing schizophrenia any time after conscription was 2. Adjusted for diagnosis at conscription to IQ score to poor social integration to disturbed behaviour to cigarette smoking to and place of upbringing. Adjusted for diagnosis at conscription, IQ score, poor social integration, disturbed behaviour, cigarette smoking, and place of upbringing. We found a dose dependent relation between frequency of cannabis use and risk of schizophrenia, with an adjusted odds ratio for linear trend across the categories of frequency of cannabis use used in this study of 1. The association between cannabis use and schizophrenia was greater in subjects admitted in the first five years after conscription adjusted odds ratio 2. Frequency of cannabis use was associated with schizophrenia in both the early onset group adjusted odds ratio for linear trend 1. Altogether subjects 3. Those who used only cannabis had an increased risk of schizophrenia compared with those who reported no drug use. The odds ratio before adjustment 1. We found a dose dependent relation for frequency of use, with an adjusted odds ratio for linear trend of 1. We found an association between schizophrenia and stimulant use in the crude analysis crude odds ratio 3. Adjusting for frequency of cannabis use further reduced the association between stimulant use and risk of schizophrenia adjusted odds ratio 1. The association observed between schizophrenia and frequency of cannabis use was unchanged after adjustment for stimulant use. A total of subjects were admitted with other psychoses. Subjects who had ever used cannabis had an increased risk of developing a psychosis other than schizophrenia crude odds ratio 1. A similar pattern was observed for the association with cannabis frequency, with a linear trend odds ratio of 1. For all the analyses, diagnosis on conscription, IQ score, and place of upbringing contributed most to confounding. Adjusting for the other potential confounders made virtually no difference to the final adjusted results. Self reported use of cannabis in early adulthood was associated with an increased risk of developing schizophrenia. Risk increased in a dose dependent manner with increasing frequency of cannabis use, and this relation remained when analysis was restricted to subjects who had used only cannabis and no other drugs before conscription. The largest risk was seen in subjects reporting use of cannabis on more than 50 occasions. We found no association between cannabis and other psychotic illnesses, which implies that cannabis has a rather specific association with an increased risk of schizophrenia. The association between use of cannabis and schizophrenia was stronger in subjects who were first admitted within five years of conscription. One explanation is that subjects with a prodrome of schizophrenia at conscription may have increased their cannabis use, perhaps as a means of self medication. The relation with cannabis use was also observed in the later onset group, admitted more than five years after conscription. It seems more likely that the reduced association in the group with later onset is due to misclassification, as the number of people who discontinued cannabis use accumulated over time. Although adjustment for confounders substantially reduced the odds ratios, adjusting for poor social integration had only minimal effects. A similar effect was observed in the original study by Andreasson et al, who adjusted for the number of friends that the subjects reported having. Personality traits are difficult to measure accurately, however, and residual confounding remains a possibility. The association between cannabis and schizophrenia persisted even after adjusting for use of alcohol, cigarettes, and other drugs, all of which are likely to be indicative of risk taking behaviour. This implies that a shared risk factor be it biological, genetic, or through personality traits for developing schizophrenia and for using psychoactive substances does not adequately explain the association observed. We are limited in that we have only data regarding use of cannabis before conscription. But if the pattern of increased initiation and reduced cessation of drug use seen in the schizophrenia group persisted after the time of conscription, this would result in us underestimating the effect size of cannabis. Fewer subjects in this cohort claimed to have used cannabis and other illicit drugs compared with similar cohorts that used anonymous questionnaires. Non-response was similar for subjects developing schizophrenia and non-cases, although, as a further check, we repeated the analyses, having recoded non-responders as either users or non-users of cannabis. This made no difference when recoding was non-differential between cases and non-cases, but it increased the odds ratios substantially when recoding was differential. It is possible that use of stimulants could explain the results if stimulants were able to induce a chronic psychotic illness, identical to schizophrenia. But we did not find an independent association between use of stimulants and schizophrenia, although power was reduced compared with other analyses. Although studies from the United States have found that initiation of amphetamine use peaks by age , 22 it is possible that initiation of stimulants after conscription was more likely in subjects who had previously used only cannabis. But the absence of an independent association with use of stimulants in our data implies that cannabis is potentially the more important agent. These findings are in keeping with accumulating evidence that cannabis has detrimental effects on mental health in some people. The overall weight of evidence is that occasional use of cannabis has few harmful effects overall, 2 and the drug is less likely to be used regularly and cause dependence than nicotine. Nevertheless, these results indicate a potentially serious risk to the mental health of people who use cannabis, particularly in the presence of other risk factors for schizophrenia. Such risks need to be considered in the current move to liberalise and possibly legalise the use of cannabis in the United Kingdom and other countries. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Find articles by Stanley Zammit. Find articles by Peter Allebeck. Find articles by Sven Andreasson. Find articles by Ingvar Lundberg. Find articles by Glyn Lewis. Stanley Zammit : MRC clinical research fellow. Peter Allebeck : professor of social medicine. Sven Andreasson : associate professor of social medicine. Ingvar Lundberg : professor of occupational epidemiology. Glyn Lewis : professor of psychiatric epidemiology. Accepted Sep See editorial ' Cannabis and mental health ' on page See ' Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study ' on page See ' Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study ' on page Open in a new tab. Editorial by Rey and Tennant. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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