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In the last decades, growing evidence showed the therapeutic capabilities of Cannabis plants. These capabilities were attributed to the specialized secondary metabolites stored in the glandular trichomes of female inflorescences, mainly phytocannabinoids and terpenoids. The accumulation of the metabolites in the flower is versatile and influenced by a largely unknown regulation system, attributed to genetic, developmental and environmental factors. As Cannabis is a dioecious plant, one main factor is fertilization after successful pollination. We used advanced analytical methods to assess the phytocannabinoids and terpenoids content, including a newly developed semi-quantitative analysis for terpenoids without analytical standards. We found that fertilization significantly decreased phytocannabinoids content. For terpenoids, the subgroup of monoterpenoids had similar trends to the phytocannabinoids, proposing both are commonly regulated in the plant. Additionally, specific phytocannabinoids and terpenoids showed an uncommon increase in concentration followed by fertilization with particular male plants. Our results demonstrate that although the profile of phytocannabinoids and their relative ratios were kept, fertilization substantially decreased the concentration of nearly all phytocannabinoids in the plant regardless of the type of fertilizing male. Our findings may point to the functional roles of secondary metabolites in Cannabis. Fertilization of Cannabis decreases phytocannabinoids accumulation and alters the accumulation of terpenoids from distinct families. Cannabis sativa L. Cannabis has been known as a medicinal plant since ancient times Bonini et al. These therapeutic abilities have been attributed to the secondary metabolites biosynthesized in Cannabis Andre et al. Around different secondary metabolites have been identified ElSohly and Slade, ; Flores-Sanchez and Verpoorte, These belong to several groups of compounds including phytocannabinoids, terpenoids and flavonoids. A second large group of metabolites is the terpenoids, which are also found in many other plants. These metabolites are closely related to phytocannabinoids, sharing the same isoprenoid precursor and built up by branched isoprene units Booth et al. Terpenoids are responsible for the fragrance and taste of the plant and are suggested to also have defensive roles. They also contribute to the therapeutic effects attributed to Cannabis Russo and Marcu, Another group of metabolites worth mentioning is flavonoids. Among this group, which is widespread in the plant kingdom, there are three specific prenylated flavonoids, termed Cannflavins A—C, which are unique to Cannabis and show potent anti-inflammatory abilities Radwan et al. Ongoing research is focused on matching specific metabolites found in the plant and their therapeutic capabilities. To this end, specialized analytical methods have been developed in order to obtain precise knowledge on all the components of the plant and the effects they are responsible for. Currently, more than 90 phytocannabinoids and terpenoids are routinely identified and quantified to obtain an overall chemical profile of each chemovar used for a medicinal purpose Berman et al. Genome, transcriptome and proteome data have been published since van Bakel et al. Biosynthetic pathways are being unraveled, and recently more than 30 Cannabis specific terpenoid synthases have been characterized Booth et al. In addition, the environmental and developmental factors that affect metabolite accumulation are also studied, such as light Hawley et al. The increasing information on the impact of these different factors on metabolite accumulation has the prospect of developing specific chemovars harboring a pre-planned group of metabolites Romero et al. This study examined the effect of an additional factor, the fertilization of Cannabis flowers following pollination of the pistil. Fertilization of flowers is a key step in the plant life cycle. Successful pollination activates a series of events followed by fertilization and embryogenesis. Cannabis is a dioecious plant, harboring either female or male reproductive organs. It is also a wind-pollinated plant, in which the pollination of flowers is not dependent on specific animal pollinators. Phytocannabinoids are most abundant in the female flower inflorescences Flores-Sanchez and Verpoorte, Fertilized flowers, harboring seeds, are considerably less potent. In addition, it is a common work practice by Cannabis growers to eliminate male plants growing in a field to maintain the unfertilized inflorescences and maximize the phytocannabinoid concentrations. Therefore, it is likely that the content of secondary metabolites such as phytocannabinoids and terpenoids changes following the pollination and fertilization of Cannabis inflorescences. However, although mentioned in a few studies Meier and Mediavilla, ; Potter, ; Russo and Marcu, , this phenomenon was not studied in depth. We used indoor growing methods together with analytical procedures in order to investigate the effect of fertilization on metabolite composition and concentration in Cannabis inflorescences, and specify which metabolites are affected and to what extent. Rosh Haayin, Israel. Ethanol, catalog number , acetic acid and n-Hexane were obtained from BioLab Ltd. Jerusalem, Israel. The effect of fertilization was tested on two Cannabis sativa L. In addition, the female plants were subjected to a sex conversion treatment Mohan Ram and Sett, ; Small and Naraine, and these induced males were also used as pollen donors to fertilize the two female plants. In order to achieve pollen sacs, 45 days old rooted cutting, 30 cm size female plants were sprayed daily until completely moist with ethylene inhibitor Sodium Thiosulfate 0. The female plants that were sex changed are referred to as males or induced-males. Female plants were grown in small flowering chambers 1 m 2 in the presence of a single pollen donor. The inflorescences were ground to a fine powder using an electric grinder, then 98— mg were weighed and extracted with 1 mL ethanol. Identification and absolute quantification of phytocannabinoids were performed by external calibrations, as previously described Berman et al. For the terpenoids analyses, 10 mg of each ground Cannabis sample was weighed in duplicates in a 20 mL HS amber vial with 1. Some of the terpenoids were calculated semi-quantitatively based on the calibration curves of terpenoids with commercially available analytical standards with similar MS spectral characteristics and retention times. Identification of these terpenoids was performed by spectral searching against the NIST library version 2. Statistical analyses were conducted using GraphPad Prism software version 8. P -values were corrected for multiple testing using the Tukey post hoc test. Outliers were defined as data points greater than two standard deviations from the mean 9. Induced-male plants Figures 1G,H were genetically identical to the female plants, had a distinct change in the sex of the flowers after treatment and a larger number of inflorescences compared to males Figure 1I. Specific fertilization was achieved by incubation of the individual plants Figure 1J. Figure 1. Study design. I Representative image of a male donor plant strain To capture images, the plants were placed on the same white background and photographed individually. J Experimental design. Female and male plants were incubated together for 6—8 weeks. Fertilization resulted in a predominantly significant decrease of overall total phytocannabinoids concentration in inflorescences for both the THC-rich and CBD-rich females, by all three types of males Figure 2A. The full list of the 95 phytocannabinoids quantified is displayed in Supplementary Table 1 as named by Berman et al. Next, we investigated changes in quantities of individual phytocannabinoids Figures 2B—E. For the THC-female, fertilization caused a reduction in the abundant phytocannabinoids, whose concentrations in the plant were above 0. Additional phytocannabinoids, whose concentrations in the plant were 0. Figure 2. Phytocannabinoids quantity predominantly decreases after fertilization with all types of males. A Total phytocannabinoid concentrations and B—E Individual phytocannabinoid concentrations after fertilization relative to unfertilized control. In addition to assessing the phytocannabinoid contents, we quantified over terpenoid compounds. About half of the quantified terpenoids had pure analytical standards available and were analyzed as previously described Shapira et al. Some of these terpenoids demonstrated significant changes after fertilization, therefore, we assessed them with a newly developed semi-quantitative analysis Figure 3. The semi-quantitative analysis is based on the calibration curves of terpenoids with commercially available analytical standards, relying primarily on similar MS spectral characteristics and also on retention times Supplementary Figure 2. Figure 3. Terpenoid profiles of Cannabis strains before and after fertilization. Overlay of chromatograms of the unfertilized and fertilized samples of A THC-rich and B CBD-rich female plants were performed by the same scales \[retention time RT ; relative abundance of the signal intensity; weight of the samples 10 mg \], showing monoterpenoids on the left and sesquiterpenoids on the right. The total amount of terpenoids in the inflorescences was found to be chemovar specific Figure 4A. The high-CBD female plants exhibited two to threefold higher concentrations of terpenoids, both in the unfertilized and all three types of fertilized plants, compared to the THC-rich female plants. Upon fertilization, there were no significant changes in terpenoid accumulation in the THC-rich female. In the CBD-rich female plants, there was no significant change when fertilized with a THC-rich male plant, but fertilization with a CBD-rich male or an induced male resulted in a significant reduction in total terpenoids. The profile of terpenoids in plants is highly variable Booth et al. We detected an overall fertilization-dependent decrease in total terpenoid accumulation only in the CBD-rich plant, while the THC-rich plant showed a mixed trend of changes, either reduction or no significant change. Figure 4. Terpenoid quantity varies after fertilization. Out of terpenoids detected, 31 were monoterpenoids, built up by two isoprene units 10 carbons and the rest were sesquiterpenoids, built up by three isoprene units 15 carbons Shapira et al. To further evaluate the influence of fertilization on terpenoid accumulation after fertilization, we analyzed these two distinct subgroups. The concentration of sesquiterpenoids was unchanged for the THC-rich female, but there was a trend of reduced concentrations in the CBD-rich fertilized female, which was statistically significant when fertilized with the CBD-rich or the induced male Figure 4C. Next, we set out to examine the accumulation of individual terpenoids in the plants Figure 5 and found chemovar-specific differences. Moreover, we noticed that the terpenoid profile changed during the length of the flowering time, between 6—8 weeks after fertilization. This was in contrast to the phytocannabinoids profile, which was more consistent between these two time-points data not shown. For example, for the CBD-rich female, the sesquiterpenoid Caryophyllene oxide had a very low concentration in the 6-week flowering plant but became highly abundant in the 8-week plant Figures 5C,D. Hence, in addition to chemovar-specific differences, differential accumulation was observed between 6- and 8-week growth in the same chemovar. Figure 5. Abundant terpenoids in the unfertilized female flowers and their concentrations at 6 weeks A,C and 8 weeks B,D. Values presented without SEM exceeded the maximal detection limit maximum limits of detection for terpenoids appear in Supplementary Table 5. As seen in Figure 5 , numerous terpenoids significantly decreased following fertilization. However, several specific terpenoids showed an interesting increase in concentration after fertilization. Interestingly, the levels of these terpenoids were either reduced or unchanged in the CBD-rich female due to fertilization processes. In contrast, in the CBD-rich female, the monoterpenoid Linalool significantly increased upon fertilization by the induced male, but was reduced or unchanged following all other fertilization processes in both plant chemovars Figure 6B. Figure 6. Specific terpenoids are increased following fertilization. The present study was designed to examine the influence of flower fertilization on the accumulation of Cannabis secondary metabolites. The primary outcome is the significant overall decrease in phytocannabinoid metabolites upon fertilization. This decrease was evident in almost all phytocannabinoids measured, regardless if those were the abundant ones or the relatively low accumulating components Figure 2. Though the altogether amount of phytocannabinoids is drastically reduced, the ratio between the different compounds is kept and their profile in the plant remains principally unchanged. Terpenoid concentrations mostly decreased but varied. While monoterpenoids had a similar decrease as portrayed by the phytocannabinoids, sesquiterpenoids exhibited a more diverse pattern, some of which increased and some decreased upon fertilization Figure 3. However, examining specific metabolites can point to several phytocannabinoids or terpenoids that have an individual trend, suggesting a more complex regulatory network Figures 4 , 5. First, these results confirm that when the objective is to maintain high levels of phytocannabinoids, fertilization must be avoided. Apart from a physical separation between female and male flowers or vegetative reproduction, this goal could be achieved using advanced genetic manipulations that target female fertilization pathways Huang et al. Second, this study revealed the resemblance between monoterpenoids and phytocannabinoids accumulation patterns. Both secondary metabolite species are decreased upon fertilization, while sesquiterpenoids are differently influenced. Possible explanations for this similarity are common intracellular regulation pathways or shared morphological structures. From a cellular perspective, monoterpenoids and phytocannabinoids share the common biosynthetic precursor Geranyl diphosphate GPP and are both biosynthesized in the plastid Booth et al. In contrast, sesquiterpenoids are synthesized in the cytosol from a different precursor Farnesyl pyrophosphate—FPP. This suggests that phytocannabinoids and monoterpenoids may share a common regulation mechanism, involving an enzymatic step upstream to GPP, such as GPP synthase illustrated in Figure 7. Figure 7. Phytocannabinoids and terpenoids biosynthesis pathways. Alternatively, from a morphological perspective, previous studies have shown that although phytocannabinoids, monoterpenoids, and sesquiterpenoids are all biosynthesized and accumulated in the glandular trichomes, their distribution differentiates during trichome development and between trichome types. A recent study by Booth et al. Another study Livingston et al. A common accumulation pattern of monoterpenoids and phytocannabinoids during flower development was also previously demonstrated Aizpurua-Olaizola et al. Parallel accumulation and decrease of phytocannabinoids and monoterpenoids in contrast to sesquiterpenoids may suggest that trichome types are differently affected by fertilization, and hence the diversity in metabolite accumulation. An additional major finding depicted in this study is the somewhat dependent outcome of the fertilization process on the pollen donor plant. Both THC- or CBD-rich male plants, whether naturally occurring or female-induced, had a different impact on the metabolite concentration in the female after fertilization. The exact mechanism by which these phytocannabinoids are increased is not yet clear. A previous study found over 10, genes are differentially expressed upon masculinization of female plants Adal et al. However, regardless of the type of male plant used for fertilization, the overall profile of the phytocannabinoids in the fertilized female plant remained unaltered, i. Interestingly, though the density of phytocannabinoids and terpenoids in males is minor data not shown compared to the female flowers, with high potency female plants showing 10—times more THC than corresponding males Clarke and Merlin, , male plants also possess a distinct profile of these compounds. Here, we used highly advanced analytical methods to thoroughly assess the composition of 95 phytocannabinoids and terpenoids in the inflorescences of female plants fertilized by different males, including the female plant itself induced to develop male pollen sacs. We found that fertilization significantly decreased phytocannabinoids content, while terpenoids were differentially affected. To further elucidate the effect of fertilization on the secondary metabolite accumulation, future studies that follow the gene expression of enzymes upstream to GPP after fertilization may allow exposing master regulators of the biochemical pathways. In addition, better characterization of the morphological changes following fertilization may shed light on how different trichome types are affected by fertilization. Finally, the variance in metabolites observed by fertilization with different male plants may suggest that the pollen itself or the developing embryo influence the female sporophyte. Altogether, one must remember that these specialized secondary metabolites have an important role in planta , increasing the plant fitness to the environment Huchelmann et al. The substantial decrease in phytocannabinoids and terpenoids after fertilization may point to their functional roles in the plant. The actual functions of phytocannabinoids and terpenoids in Cannabis were only sparsely studied, mainly suggesting roles in defense against biotic or abiotic factors Potter, , protection from UV radiation Eichhorn Bilodeau et al. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. MF and DM: study supervision. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Adal, A. Comparative RNA-Seq analysis reveals genes associated with masculinization in female Cannabis sativa. Planta , 1— Aizpurua-Olaizola, O. Evolution of the cannabinoid and terpene content during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants from different chemotypes. Allen, K. Genomic characterization of the complete terpene synthase gene family from Cannabis sativa. PLoS One e Andre, C. Cannabis sativa : the plant of the thousand and one molecules. Plant Sci. Berman, P. Bernstein, N. Impact of N, P, K, and humic acid supplementation on the chemical profile of medical cannabis Cannabis sativa L. Bonini, S. Cannabis sativa: a comprehensive ethnopharmacological review of a medicinal plant with a long history. Booth, J. Terpene synthases from Cannabis sativa. Terpene synthases and terpene variation in cannabis sativa1\[OPEN\]. Plant Physiol. Borghi, M. Outstanding questions in flower metabolism. Plant J. Cai, S. Plant Biotechnol. Cassano, T. From Cannabis sativa to cannabidiol: promising therapeutic candidate for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Chandra, S. 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Russo, E. Cannabis pharmacology: the usual suspects and a few promising leads. Shapira, A. Tandem mass spectrometric quantification of 93 terpenoids in Cannabis using static headspace injections. Small, E. Expansion of female sex organs in response to prolonged virginity in Cannabis sativa marijuana. Crop Evol. Starowicz, K. Cannabinoids and pain: sites and mechanisms of action. Tripathi, S. Integrated signaling in flower senescence: an overview. Plant Signal. The draft genome and transcriptome of Cannabis sativa. Genome Biol. Vincent, D. Optimisation of protein extraction from medicinal cannabis mature buds for bottom-up proteomics. Molecules Zager, J. Gene networks underlying cannabinoid and terpenoid accumulation in cannabis. Zhu, H. Cell Biol. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. Summary Fertilization of Cannabis decreases phytocannabinoids accumulation and alters the accumulation of terpenoids from distinct families. Introduction Cannabis sativa L. Experimental Design The effect of fertilization was tested on two Cannabis sativa L.

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