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Recent advances in imaging and monitoring of heterogeneous catalysts with Raman spectroscopy. Catalysis is a complex multidisciplinary science that enables efficient performance in energy, automotive, chemical and pharmaceutical industries; most chemical reactions are catalyzed and it is a science that cannot be understood without spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is the enabling tool for knowledge-based design of highly efficient and stable catalysts. This review presents the progress of operando Raman spectroscopy during reaction and temperature-programmed treatments for heterogeneous catalysts solid-gas and solid-liquid , with particular emphasis on the combination with other techniques, by extending it to space-resolved analyses and as a tool for mechanism investigation and monitoring in the liquid phase. Operando techniques are a key tool to understand catalysis and for monitoring and controlling catalytic processes. We summarize the most relevant research lines where Raman spectroscopy is applied in catalysis, challenges, hurdles and opportunities. This review outlines the versatility of Raman spectroscopy, for real-time analyses, in situ variable-programmed investigations and reaction studies. Spectroscopic information can be enhanced in a quantitative or qualitative manner, i. This compilation outlines the posibilities of signal enhancement by resonance or SERS, and expanding it to mapping. We also comment developments for Raman imaging of profiles during catalyst synthesis and during reaction. Finally, this review summarizes the progress made in the liquid phase, to study catalyst synthesis, to monitor and investigate reaction mechanism and progress. The simultaneous combination of Raman with other complementary techniques is presented for these three lines of development. The current scenario presents an extraordinary perspective on opportunities for future developments. Catalysis cannot be understood without spectroscopy. Spectroscopic techniques for characterization of catalysts in the working state are powerful, because they provide fundamental information about catalyst structures, including surface structures, under the appropriate conditions. Such characterizations have permitted major advances in catalysis, as they can be the basis for the design or discovery of new catalysts. Catalysis has gained importance and popularity in chemical technology since it enables the determination of relationships between catalytic activity and catalyst structure at the atomic scale. The need for characterization of catalysts during reaction has been highlighted and demonstrated by several authors. Time-resolved transient temperature or pressure response experiments can be also carried out by Raman spectroscopy and reaction kinetics data can be measured directly and correlated with the spectroscopic data. In addition, catalytic reactors are easily accessible to spectroscopy using quartz fiber optics. The Raman experiments can be carried out with static controlled atmosphere or under flowing mixtures of gases to mimic the conditions in a catalytic reactor. It is also possible to study reactions in the liquid phase or under supercritical conditions. Operando spectroscopic techniques are suitable for studying, monitoring and controlling homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts in real-time under working conditions such as high pressures and temperatures in the gas and liquid phase, so that they are kept at its optimum performance. The operando methodology combines in situ spectroscopy during reaction with simultaneous activity measurement in a cell that meets the requirements of both, in situ cell and catalytic reactor. They are nowadays commonly used to obtain mechanistic insight into the active site and the related reaction mechanism. Thus, operando spectroscopic methodologies have now become efficient tools for the design of advanced catalytic materials. This would result in much higher product selectivity and typically longer catalyst operation time since relatively aggressive regeneration cycles is avoided; for instance thermal peaks during coke calcination. New instrumental developments combining multiple spectroscopic techniques into one operando set-up have emerged during the last years, giving ample opportunities to reach a more detailed understanding of many relevant catalytic systems. In the present paper, an overview of the literature on the most representative examples of using Raman operando as a single-technique as well as those relating to combining Raman operando with other spectroscopic techniques are presented. Its application for imaging and monitoring during catalytic operation or catalyst synthesis is also presented. A large number of monographs and review articles on Raman spectroscopy in heterogeneous catalysis have been published to date so this work is not aiming at bringing a thorough review, but presents current progress and opportunities for Raman spectroscopy based on the significant progress of in situ and operando studies during the last decade for both liquid and gas phase reactions. In situ spectroscopic methodologies bring an insight on the state of catalytic materials, their structure, surface structure and adsorbed species under controlled environment. As the experimental facilities progress, there is an evident evolution on in situ studies that get closer and closer to the catalytic event. This evolution has become more apparent in the literature after the term 'operando' that was first published in Since this term were coined as described elsewhere. A qualitative change has become apparent in the last decade to further consolidate in situ spectroscopy of the working catalyst. The term 'operando' is a common term in literature, but it is appropriate to put its concept in perspective. The term 'in situ,' Latin for 'on site,' implies that the sample is analyzed at the location the cell where it has been treated or is being treated. In situ is quite a versatile term and several levels of such experiments are described in literature Fig. In many in situ studies, though, the temperature or gas phase may have changed at the moment of acquisition. Temperature-programmed processes are a typical case, like TPR-Raman spectroscopy, in which Raman spectra characterize the reduction of a sample, TPO-Raman spectroscopy, or any temperature-programmed reaction with an adsorbate or a probe molecule TPSR. In the last few years, a powerful variant of variable-conditions 'in situ' spectroscopy is becoming increasingly important: modulation excitation; in this case, the signal-to-noise and time resolution can be significantly improved. This is an increasingly important approach to assess the state of the catalyst during reaction. However, in this approach, no online activity measurement is typically made, or if it is, activity values are significantly lower that it should correspond to the system. This is due to the fact that spectroscopic criteria dominate in the design of the in situ cell. On occasions, there are significant temperature gradients, or the catalyst is as a wafer for reactions runs on powder catalysts, and many other possible cases. Thus, it is possible to demonstrate that the spectra correspond to an operating catalyst. Due to simultaneous quantitative analysis of the reaction progress, structure and activity can be correlated. The term 'operando' is Latin for 'working'. In the operando methodology, the operando cell must be a cell that delivers reaction kinetics data that match those obtained in the corresponding conventional reactor and be adequate for simultaneous spectroscopic analyses. Since it was first proposed, a key requirement was that the operando cell would be kinetically relevant thus comparisons with conventional reactor activity data or Arrhenius plots were reported using operando cells. Meunier has reported detailed analyses of kinetic aspects of many operando cells. While 'operando' is a rather new term, several groups had already executed experimental approaches using the ideas of this concept. For instance, an operando EPR cells was presented in by Fehrmann et col. Treating the organometallic compound in reaction feed for butadiene hydrogenation or for crotonaldehyde hydrogenation, it is possible to observe how the organometallic compounds based on carbonyl ligands progressive decomposes, releasing CO. DRIFT spectra show the progressive transformation into a metallic surface based on the IR bands of carbonyl ligands, that shift from frequencies characteristic of CO ligands, to those of chemisorbed CO on a metal surface. Such structural transformation runs parallel to the rise of hydrogenation catalytic activity, thus, to the birth of an active metal catalyst out of an inert organometallic compound. That DRIFT cell was modified to be able to obtain quantitative conversion values, like those obtained in a fixed-bed microreactor; alas, such changes are only briefly commented in those papers. Fortunately, a very detailed description and much more thorough study on how to obtain quantitative conversion modifying com- mercial DRIFT cells was recently reported by Meunier. In the case of Raman spectroscopy, the first paper using the operando approach was reported by Hill et al. Interestingly their first papers using the term 'operando' were also for Raman spectroscopy and for ammoxidation reaction, in these cases, it was for the gas-phase ammoxidation of propane into acrylonitrile. Many authors have demonstrated the need for characterization of catalysts at work; its progress has been summarized in three recent volumes of Advances in Catalysis and in the compilation in Chemical Society Reviews. In particular, Raman is one of the most powerful tools for operando study of working catalysts. Raman experiments can be carried out at virtually any temperature and pressure, without interference from the gas phase, with increasingly higher time-resolutions. Thus, reaction kinetic data can be measured directly and correlated with the spectroscopic data. A number of monographs and review articles on Raman spectroscopy in heterogeneous catalysis have been published and have been reviewed. Very recently several exciting reviews address specific areas of progress for in situ Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy can be used to investigate the state of the catalyst its bulk and surface structure , of the reactants and of the adsorbed molecules. When reactions happen in the liquid phase, Raman can be used as an efficient tool for monitoring reaction progress. Detailed revisions of variable-programmed in situ and operando Raman studies has been done recently, so we will only present representative studies as well as their interplay with other complementary approaches. Investigation of the state of catalysts under variable-programmed conditions brings insight under several kind of treatments. The Raman studies connect typical profiles e. For instance, the anomalous reduction profiles of dispersed vanadium oxide on silica at vanadia coverage close to its dispersion limit. These are due to the different behavior of dispersed vanadium oxide species due to the presence of neighboring vanadium sites. These, reduce at low coverage, however, reduction at higher coverage triggers structural rearrangement of surface vanadium oxide species. Upon removal of oxide ions, surface vanadium oxide species rearrange and aggregate into nanocrystalline V2O5 Fig. Such transformation occurs at a temperature lower than at which highly dispersed vanadia reduces. The aggregation of dispersed vanadia into nano-V2O5 would facilitate their reduction, since the removal of a V-O-Si bond upon reduction which releases H2O would be compensated by the rearrangement of a neighboring V-O-Si bond into a V-O-V bond. Since, silica does not stabilize polymerized surface vanadium oxide species, this rearrangement leads to segregated V2O5 nanocrystals. V2O5 nanocrystals eventually reduce as temperature increases during reduction; then, dispersed vanadium oxide that did not rearrange, reduces. Such a scenario does not occur at lower coverages, and has been uncovered with TPR-Raman measurement. TPR-Raman may also bring detailed insight on other phenomena occurring during reduction. For instance, Lewandowska et al. In that occasion, the catalysts prepared with vanadyl sulfate exhibited a very sharp reduction peak. This would indicate that surface vanadium oxide species are particularly well dispersed on alumina with this precursor, and that it would render a pretty narrow distribution of states of surface vanadium oxide species. Most interestingly, the on-line mass spectrometer confirms that H2S is concomitantly produced to water Fig. This is indicative that the reduction of both, surface sulfate species and surface vanadium oxide species occur in the same temperature range. It could not have been told in the absence of simultaneous spectroscopic confirmation on the reduction of vanadium species and online analysis of effluent gases. The evolution of reduced S-species from these catalysts during TPR has also been reported by Auroux's group. Purchase options and add-ons. Report an issue with this product. Previous slide of product details. Publication date. Print length. See all details. Next slide of product details. From the Back Cover Over papers are published in the field of catalysis each year. While the majority appear within a handful publications, keeping up with the literature can be difficult. Now in its 24th volume, the Specialist Periodical Report on Catalysis presents critical and comprehensive reviews of the hottest literature published over the last twelve months. Highlights within this volume include Miguel Baneres and Vanesa Calvino-Casilda discussing recent advances in Raman imaging of heterogeneous catalysts. Olaf Deutschmann examines recent studies in catalytic reforming of logistic fuels. The coverage-dependent adsorption properties of late transition metals are discussed by John Kitchin and colleagues. Green oxidation catalysis with metal complexes is discussed by Christina Friere. Cavani et al consider innovative approaches with the selective oxidation of o-xylene. Miguel Yus reviews the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction, while Rafael Luque's team examines the catalytic applications of mesoprous silica-based materials. With chapters detailing specific areas within the field, this series is a comprehensive reference for anyone working in Catalysis and an essential resource for any Chemistry Library. All rights reserved. Spivey, M. Kitchin, 83, Green oxidation catalysis with metal complexes: from bulk to nano recyclable hybrid catalysts Cristina Freire, Clara Pereira and Susana Rebelo, , Selective oxidation of o-xylene to phthalic anhydride: from conventional catalysts and technologies toward innovative approaches Fabrizio Cavani, Aurora Caldarelli, Silvia Luciani, Carlotta Cortelli and Federico Cruzzolin, , Asymmetric organocatalyzed Morita-Baylis-Hillman reactions Gabriela Guillena, Diego J. Martinez de la Hoz and Perla B. Balbuena, , CHAPTER 1 Recent advances in imaging and monitoring of heterogeneous catalysts with Raman spectroscopy Catalysis is a complex multidisciplinary science that enables efficient performance in energy, automotive, chemical and pharmaceutical industries; most chemical reactions are catalyzed and it is a science that cannot be understood without spectroscopy. Excerpted from Catalysis Volume 24 by J. Excerpted by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher. Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. Read more. Customer reviews. How are ratings calculated? Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyses reviews to verify trustworthiness. Images in this review. No customer reviews. Your recently viewed items and featured recommendations. Back to top. Get to Know Us. Connect with Us. 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Atte Oksanen 1 , Bryan L. Drugs are sold on both dark web services and on social media, but research investigating these drug purchases online is still emerging. The aim of this study is to analyze risk factors associated with buying drugs online. Utilizing theories of criminology and addiction research, it was hypothesized that social bonds, low levels of self-control, and poor mental health are associated with buying drugs online. Additionally, it was predicted that purchases of drugs online would mediate the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. Measures of impulsivity, a sense of mastery, social belonging, psychological distress, excessive behaviors drinking, gambling and internet use were utilized to predict purchasing drugs online. Two percent of the U. Results from multinomial logistic regression, penalized maximum-likelihood logistic regression, and binary mediation regression models indicated that buying drugs online was associated with lower self-control, higher psychological distress, and excessive gambling behavior and excessive Internet use. Having online friends was not a risk factor, but having strong social bonds with offline friends served as a protective factor. Additionally, buying drugs online mediated the relationship between low self-control and regular use of drugs. Results indicate that more focus should be placed on mainstream social media services as sources of drug acquisition as online drug buyers have multiple self-control and mental health problems. Este estudio tiene como objetivo examinar los factores de riesgo vinculados a la compra de drogas online. Cite this article as: Oksanen, A. Illegal drug use and trade are persistent public health and safety issues with serious consequences for individuals and societies. The strategies and contexts for the purchase of drugs evolved greatly in the past decade. Nowadays, the Internet offers easy access to legal and illegal activities taking place on open social media services and encrypted services that use, for example, the Tor network. Online drug dealing first caught public attention with the rise of the Silk Road, an online cryptomarket, which operated in Tor, in Barratt et al. Although the Internet is now a popular context for drug trade, research on this topic is still in its very early stages. It is crucial to discover if buying drugs online is prevalent and to describe risk and protective factors that can potentially be addressed to prevent this emerging problem behavior. Studies have shown that users of cryptomarkets are most commonly males in their 20s. Users of cryptomarkets prioritize them over street markets for quality reasons and personal safety Barratt et al. Cryptomarket buyers have been considered a technological drug subculture that practices online activism and libertarian ideology Maddox et al. Despite much of the focus on cryptomarkets, some indications show that people might use mainstream social media sites, such as Instagram, to buy drugs Marsh, Recently, a Nordic project used qualitative interviews and a digital ethnographic approach to analyze the phenomenon in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Currently, the literature lacks studies using national datasets and our study aims to fill this gap by investigating buying drugs online from a cross-national perspective. Investigating this phenomenon is important due to the potential of online drug markets for easier access to drugs, which can amplify the various risks that substance use has for young people. Moreover, risk and protective factors for buying drugs online still need to be discovered. We argue that a combination of theories from criminology and addiction research could help researchers to understand the psychological and social risk factors related to buying drugs online. These perspectives include self-control, social bonds, and mental health. Thus, we expect that easy access to social media sources for acquiring drugs could lead to more opportunities to engage in daily use of drugs in individuals with low self-control. Furthermore, we expect that buying drugs online would mediate the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. Learning takes place in different environments, including friendships of differing quality, frequency, and intensity. Perceived closeness or belonging to friends can have an influence on deviant behaviors. This is particularly the case on the Internet, where it is very easy to get access to harmful and deviant content and form social contacts with like-minded peers Keipi et al. However, strong ties with offline friends have been shown to buffer risky online behavior Kaakinen, Keipi, et al. Mental health refers to psychological, emotional, and social stability and wellbeing of individuals. Addiction research widely recognizes that mental health problems coexist and develop with excessive drug use Orford, One example of these problems is psychological distress i. Issues with mental health are also manifested in other types of addictive behaviors, which could further influence drug use. Drug use has high comorbidity with excessive alcohol consumption Grant et al. All these excessive behaviors are relatively prevalent among young people. In this study, we focused on factors related to buying drugs online, an understudied and emerging problem behavior among young people. Our first aim was to evaluate the prevalence of social media drug acquisition in a population of the United States and Spanish young people. These countries were selected due to their high percentage of drug use among young people ESPAD, ; Savolainen, These countries are otherwise comparable in the usage of Internet among young people Savolainen et al, and provide a good starting point for comparative research on buying drugs online. Our second aim was to investigate how drug acquisition online is associated with self-control, social bonds, and issues with mental health. We predicted that strong social bonds online, low self-control, and mental health issues such as psychological distress and excessive behavior, including excessive drinking, gambling and internet use, would be associated with drug use and buying drugs online. We also expected strong bonds offline to function as a protective factor against drug use and buying drugs online. The participants of the study were year-olds from the U. We recruited the U. Using such panels has become commonplace in social sciences and they are considered a good alternative due to the difficulty of recruiting participants by traditional means. The limitation of such datasets is that they are mostly restricted to people using the Internet Lehdonvirta et al. However, research panels have the benefit of getting access to hard-to-reach populations such as emerging adults in many countries. In our case, the data were collected using similar procedure via Dynata in both countries to guarantee the comparability of data samples. Comparisons of the country datasets to the U. Both samples were part of a larger international comparative project on young people and addictions. A survey designed in English and translated into Spanish included validated measures that have been widely used in comparative research. Additional items were translated by proficient English and Spanish speakers. The accuracy and comparability of items was guaranteed by the back-translation process in December The surveys were pre-tested with university students and mechanical Turk respondents. The surveys were conducted with LimeSurvey software that was run on the Tampere University server. Survey format and layout was identical for all respondents and optimized for both computers and mobile devices. Median response time for the survey was minutes in the U. Participation was anonymous, voluntary, and participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the survey at any time. The participants were informed about the project web page including all the necessary information in case the participants had any concerns regarding the study. The participants gave consent to make data open access and available for research purposes. All the participants that finalized the survey were included in the study and there were no missing data on the items used in the study. Drug use. We then asked to specify the types of drugs used and the frequency of the use. Drug types included 1 cannabis, 2 synthetic cannabinoids, LSD, magic mushrooms, or other comparable hallucinogens, 3 amphetamines, ecstasy, cocaine or other stimulants, 4 opiates, 6 pharmaceutical opioids, 7 gamma, GBL, and other similar drugs, and 8 other pharmaceuticals. The user types were then categorized into regular cannabis users and regular users of other drugs e. Drug purchases online. Next, respondents were asked to identify different online resources for purchasing drugs, including darknet marketplaces and various social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, online dating services, and general discussion forums. Self-control was measured with two different scales. Response options were in 4-point Likert scale giving scores from 1 to 4 per each item. Response options were EIS were no 0 and yes 1 in all questions. However, omega for impulsivity in Spain was only. All regression models are adjusted for age, gender, social media activity and country. Social bonds. We used belonging to friends online and offline as measures of social bonds. We asked respondents three questions about how strongly they felt they belonged to friendship groups, groups of school or work friends, or online communities. The scale was from 1 not at all to 10 very strongly. Question on belonging to online communities was used as a single item for online friends. These questions have been previously validated in studies on deviant online behavior Minkkinen et al. Additionally, we used the nine-item Identity Bubble Reinforcement scale IBRS-9 to measure perceived similarity and identification with other social media users Kaakinen, Sirola, et al. Mental health. We measured psychological distress with the item General Health Questionnaire GHQ , which has been widely used in general population studies Goldberg et al. All of these scales had good inter-item reliability see Table 1. Control factors. We used gender, age, and social media activity as controls. We measured social media activity with a set of 12 questions involving how often respondents used the most popular social media sites. Analyses for this study were run with Stata A multinomial regression analysis was carried out to examine the associations among the covariates, drug use, and buying drugs online. We used an aggregated U. The group of people who had not used drugs was set as the reference category for those who had used drugs but not bought them online and for those who had also bought them online. Table 3 reports additional analyses that were run including only the participants who had experimented with drugs U. These analyses were conducted by using penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression i. Using the Firth method provides more robust findings in cases when either sample size or events are low. Despite this, we aimed to keep the estimation strategy as robust as possible and utilized the Firth method. The analyses were run with the Firthlogit-command Coveney, and age, gender, and social media activity were used as controls. We also report chi-square tests for categorical variables and mean comparison based on Kruskal-Wallis test. OR s are based on penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression models. All regression models are adjusted for age, gender and social media activity. Mediation analysis Figures 1 and 2 was conducted with binary mediation command with a replication bootstrap. We used aggregated US-Spain data here due to the low number of people buying drugs online. Impulsivity and sense of mastery were independent variables, buying drugs online was the mediating variable, and regular drug use was the dependent variable. Mediation analysis included age and gender as controls. Of the respondents, about every fifth Cannabis was clearly the drug most experimented with by respondents with fewer respondents reporting use of other types of drugs. Out of the United States young people, 7. In Spain the numbers were slightly lower with respective figures of 6. In the U. Additionally, respondents were given the opportunity to indicate several services where they purchased drugs online. About half of all the respondents in both the U. Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that those buying drugs online reported more self-control issues a lower sense of mastery and higher impulsivity compared with non-users as well as those who had used drugs but not bought them online Table 2. Buying drugs online was associated with psychological distress and excessive forms of drinking, gambling, and Internet use. Additional analyses were conducted in order to check the robustness of the results. Table 3 shows the descriptive statistics comparing those who have bought drugs online and those who have only experimented with drugs. These results further confirm the findings shown in Table 2 , comparing only the participants who experimented with drugs with the participants who reported buying drugs online. Self-control factors were only statistically significant in the U. In Spain, belonging to online friends was associated with buying drugs online. All mental health factors remained significant in the descriptive findings Kruskal-Wallis test and in penalized maximum likelihood logistic regression models. The last part of the analysis investigated buying drugs online as a mediator between the relationship of low self-control and regular drug use see Figures 1 and 2. Statistically significant mediation was found. Figure 1 presents the coefficients when treating impulsivity as an independent variable. The indirect effect was statistically significant p Figure 2 presents the coefficients when treating sense of mastery as an independent variable. The indirect effect was statistically significant p This study analyzed the behavior of buying drugs online among young people in the U. Still, on average every tenth person who had experience using drugs had bought them online. Thus, a low percentage of users purchasing drugs online could represent a more developed drug trade, especially given that current research on online buying indicates that a large share is intended for reselling Demant et al. The most remarkable finding is that mainstream social media services, such as Facebook and Instagram, were used for buying drugs in both countries. The results underline that research on online drugs sales should not only focus on darknet services. From a broader perspective, the results are in line with current social media and cybercrime research underlining that mainstream public Internet platforms give easy access to varying types of illicit and harmful content Keipi et al. In addition to drugs, communities and contents that promote other forms of harmful or addictive behaviors, such as problem gambling, disordered eating, or self-harm, are easily accessible and among the most visited social media sites by youth Keipi et al. In our study, both impulsivity and a low sense of mastery were associated with both drug use and buying drugs online, especially in the U. This result highlights that researchers should continue investigating impulsivity in an online setting. This could partially explain why our results were stronger in the U. Also, results indicated that online drug purchases mediated the relationship between low self-control and regular drug use. These results are an important contribution to the literature, as previous studies described online buyers as technologically savvy users who can regulate themselves Barratt et al. In contrast to these studies, our results indicate that existing self-control problems can lead to spontaneous drug purchases that may later on worsen the potential problems with regular use of drugs. Social norms and group processes within online social networks could be important in many ways. However, in our study we did not find results related to the potential influence of friend groups online. The only exception was the result from Spain indicating that those who bought drugs online expressed higher belonging to online friends. Due to this difference from the U. For example, scholarship on online cliques and bubbles has shown that they vary culturally and topically Keipi et al. We found, however, evidence that strong offline social ties were a protective factor against both drug use and buying drugs online. This finding is in line with previous studies showing that positive offline social ties can buffer potential risks encountered online Kaakinen, Keipi, et al. These findings are also consistent with social control aspects noted in criminology LaFree et al. Those buying drugs online had multiple mental health problems, as they reported psychological distress as well as excessive forms of gambling and Internet use. These findings confirmed previous research results on the associations of drug use in general Edlund et al. Therefore, it would be misleading to portray users of online drug markets as only a technologically savvy and a self-controlled sub-culture. Our results indicate that these youth may have many mental health issues and comorbidity of different addictions. Our analysis was cross-sectional and limited to two countries. Future studies should continue investigating this phenomenon in other countries as well. Although our models included risk and protective factors, and a mediation analysis, on a strong theoretical basis, causal relations need to be confirmed in future longitudinal studies. Additionally, stronger measures of impulsivity should be explored. The strength of the study was that it used two nationwide samples, but additional studies in other cultures and contexts are needed. This is one of the first studies focused on buying drugs online, an emerging problem behavior that might be especially harmful given that it is very difficult to control online behaviors. Online drug buyers have multiple self-control and mental health problems, and drug availability online might worsen their situations. Impulsive decisions are especially easy to make on social media. In light of this, more focus should be placed on youth behavior on mainstream social media services. Implications for policy and practice underline the need to work with youth on their social media use, since young people spend a considerable amount of time online. Social media platforms are linked to a wide variety of deviant behavior Nasaescu et al. The wide availability of illicit drugs is a larger problem area that needs to be tackled through legal enforcement efforts, especially online. Most importantly, the results suggest that there is a need to provide therapeutic interventions and support for those youth buying drugs online. As strong offline social ties could help protect from drug-related risks and harms, it is necessary to promote face-to-face interactions among young people. Comprehensive school-based interventions against substance use should include components related to buying drugs online, increasing its protective factors and decreasing risks. 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Introduction Illegal drug use and trade are persistent public health and safety issues with serious consequences for individuals and societies. Mental Health Mental health refers to psychological, emotional, and social stability and wellbeing of individuals. This Study In this study, we focused on factors related to buying drugs online, an understudied and emerging problem behavior among young people. Method Participants The participants of the study were year-olds from the U. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics. Conflict of Interest The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest. References Akers, R. Orford, J. Excessive appetites: A psychological view of addictions. Introduction Method Results Discussion. Go top. PlumX Metrics. Your request has been saved Notify me when a new issue is online I have read and accept the information about Privacy. For more information, see our cookies policy Aceptar. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics Note. Procedure Both samples were part of a larger international comparative project on young people and addictions. Instruments Drug use. Data Analysis Analyses for this study were run with Stata Results Of the respondents, about every fifth The indirect effect was statistically significant p Discussion This study analyzed the behavior of buying drugs online among young people in the U.

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