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Log out EU Login Log out. Integrated infrastructure for CO2 transport and storage in the west Mediterranean. The COMET methodology integrates the special development aspects of infrastructure to transport the captured CO2 from its sources to the appropriate CO2 storage sites, as well as their time development and costs in a technical economic energy-transport model. The methodology explored how, how much, where and when CO2 will be captured, and where can it be adequately, safely and securely stored in a considered area. This was achieved by integrating the evolution of the energy system and industry sectors therefore of the emissions of CO2 and the storage potential. Combining this information into a geographical system allowed studying the development of the CO2 transport infrastructure over time. In this frame the methodology assessed the impact of different development assumptions: with or without transnationally infrastructure, with high or low economic development, with more or less stringent mitigation commitments, allowing free pipeline pathways or constraining them, etc. Only in scenarios of low economic growth would storage of 50 Mt CO2 be sufficient. Although in , this amount is similar in both the low and high mitigation scenarios; in it is clearly different: 74 Mt is avoided by CCS in the high mitigation scenario versus 44 Mt in the low mitigation scenarios. The detailed descriptions which resulted from the modeling work show among others when, where, and how much CO2 is captured, transported and stored in the different scenarios among others in tables, figures and GIS maps. These also include information on associated costs and investments and are meant to give an elaborate impression of possible trajectories of a CCS infrastructure over time. The overview of drivers, synergies and barriers, provided an inventory from the international literature, supplemented by information found at the national level. Based on this inventory, actions were identified to overcome the barriers and enhance synergies. The basis is laid for identifying and assessing promising CO2 transport networks in the West Mediterranean region. Many lessons have been drawn which are related to physical aspects of the network, as well as issues which are encountered during the implementation process. The models and tools developed and data collected within COMET, provide opportunities to further refine these lessons. COMET was the first large-scale integrated study of the costs, barriers and challenges for the deployment of a large CO2 transport and storage infrastructure in the WMR. Moreover, the results of the project, namely its technical and economic cost analysis, provide a framework for similar studies across Europe and other parts of the world. The need for research on CCS in the West Mediterranean is related not only to the geographical proximity but also to: 1. The increasing connections between the energy and industrial sectors in the area; 2. The continuity of sedimentary basins that can act as possible storage reservoirs; 3. The existing experience in managing a large gas transport infrastructure, such as the natural gas pipeline coming from Algeria, through Morocco, to Spain and Portugal. There is a strong connection between the energy sectors across this geographic area. On the one hand, Morocco, Portugal and Spain already cooperate in terms of transport of natural gas. The pipeline that supplies the Iberian Peninsula with natural gas from the Algerian fields crosses Morocco in a large extension Figure 1. It is, thus, likely that the European Commission targets for reduction of GHG emissions also need to be addressed in an integrated manner by the two countries. On the other hand, Morocco is going through a period of fast economic growth. A steady increase on energy demand has driven the construction of new fossil based power plants, and the Moroccan Ministry of Energy developed an energy plan for the coming 4 years that includes additional power generation capacity of MW coal fired, MW of Natural Gas Combined Cycle and MW of Gas turbines and diesel plants. Similar challenge is faced by the energy sector in both sides of the West Mediterranean area: the need to reduce CO2 emissions, without compromising energy supply and economic development. Under such conditions, CCS in geological formations may become an attractive option common to Morocco, Portugal and Spain, also because these countries share some offshore sedimentary basins that are likely to be suitable reservoirs for CO2. Due to the scale of the challenge and the transboundary nature of potential geological reservoirs Figure 2 , it is possible that the implementation of CCS at a commercial scale will involve cooperation between countries. Such cooperation will have to consider the fact that, if the storage capacity is available, it may be more cost efficient to use common formations for regional storage of CO2, provided an integrated transport and storage network can be developed and that it is less expensive over time than isolated infrastructures developed independently in each country. For an optimal planning and design of transport infrastructure it is necessary to take into account the synergies and interferences between its own development and the development of the energy supply system and other major CO2 emitters. This involves taking into account timing e. Optimizing transport costs requires a balanced decision on transport modes and a rigorous matching of CO2 sources and sinks over time. The three factors named above, i. Notice the transboundary offshore basins. The feasibility study has taken into account several scenarios of energy system development for the time period , the location of the major CO2 point sources and the available potential for geological storage in each of those countries. COMET aimed to be a first large-scale integrated study of the costs, barriers and challenges to the deployment of a large CO2 transport and storage infrastructure in the West Mediterranean area. Moreover, the results of the project, namely its technical and economic cost analysis, may provide a framework for similar studies across Europe and other parts of the world. What would be the possible advantages and opportunities of the extension of such a network to neighbouring countries? What is the forecasted evolution of energy and industry sectors? CO2 sources in the West Mediterranean Region and their evolution. Figure 4 presents these point sources and range of emissions in Table 1 - CO2 emissions in total and capture potential Future and possible evolution The technical potential of capture is highly dependent on the share of concentrated CO2 emission sources in the ETS sectors compared to the total emissions. In this study the concentration factor of the ETS sectors is projected constant to the level existing in the historical years, i. If the development of the ETS sectors tends to higher concentration levels, the market for CCS increases, and presumably the marginal price of CO2 decreases since it lowers the need to use other energy system mitigation options, which are more expensive. Although these ratios are constant, the technical potential for CCS changes over the years depending on the scenario. The main determinants are the demand projections and the assigned mitigation level. The former determines the development of the industrial sectors where capture is possible, the latter changes the amount of electricity necessary to satisfy the consumers and the share of electricity generated by fossil fuels. Linked to the technical potential is the economic potential, which depends also on the technical economic characterisation of future capture technologies. In this project the values reported in Table 2 are assumed. Figure 7 represents the geographic distribution of CO2 production, for each cluster, from to With few exceptions, the clusters with significant expected CO2 productions are located close to the coastal regions of the three countries. It is also along coastal regions that the most significant increases of CO2 production are likely to occur from to , especially along the north the Mediterranean coast of Spain. Source cluster along the coast of Morocco also, show, in general show a trend of increasing CO2 emissions. The CO2 emissions evolution of large sources by sector and year, for the conservative scenario are presented at Figure 8. The cement and power sectors, in the conservative scenario, are presenting the major differences. Thousands of seismic profiles have been reviewed and included in geological models used to draw the limits of those structures that have been considered as a potential site for storage of CO2. Also a large collection of data coming from deep exploration boreholes has been used in order to define a complete setting of geological parameters, included in databases and employed for different calculations regarding storage capacity, operation costs and potential uncertainties. Spain, Portugal and Morocco are not well explored countries or data are not always publicly available. Lack of hydrocarbon resources is most of the times the cause of the reduced number of wells and the limited number of kilometres of seismic profiles that are available. Very frequently, data was acquired between and and, therefore, formats needed to be updated in order to be used in COMET. Therefore, numbers obtained in COMET have to be evaluated with the appropriate levels of uncertainty in order to take acceptable decisions. In any case, the values of CO2 storage capacity that have been obtained in COMET and supplied to project databases give a certain confidence about the availability of storage in the West Mediterranean region. In the three countries have been identified geological formations that can be considered as porous and permeable enough to confine CO2 at the appropriate depths. However some parameters are especially difficult to obtain because of the lack of specific tests in the previous explorations, such as permeability injectivity or salinity. In these cases some default values have been assumed based in knowledge from other regions. Total capacity ranges between 15 and 35 Gt of CO2 although it is very likely that Moroccan capacity will be much larger than the one estimated in COMET, as very large areas were not evaluated because of unavailability of data from the Oil and Gas industry. A lot of geological information that existed in old formats has been digitized and has become available for modern software tools, including seismic profiles, well logs, depth maps, thickness maps, etc Figure The amount of information adapted to modern formats is very significant, both because of its quantity and its relevance, although the quality is not always so good for the older ones. Undoubtedly, this achievement will produce relevant publications in the field of geology in participant countries, not only by COMET Project partners, but also from other universities and research centres. In this sense, it is particularly notable the progress achieved in the knowledge of the geological properties of the Portuguese marine platform, where there were no previous integrated studies of the deep geology. Figure 10 - Top and Bottom of Torres Vedras Formation interpreted in TWT Although the evaluation of the Moroccan storage capacity could not be complete because of confidentiality issues with oil and gas exploration and production, which is now a national priority, COMET is the first study related to CO2 storage. This issue had never been raised before in this country and, therefore, nothing was known about any storage opportunities there. Another very relevant progress made by COMET was the estimation of storage costs in each sink of the region. This estimation is by far the most detailed and complete evaluation of storage costs that has ever been done in the region, because of the large number of parameters used Site development costs, drilling, surface facilities, monitoring etc. Of course, values for economic parameters have been supplied or at least reviewed by industrial stakeholders of the three countries. All mentioned uncertainties need to be reduced and real parameters assessed through the acquisition of new geological data boreholes and seismic profiles that may lead to a better definition and more exact calculation of capacities and injection rates. But COMET can provide a first picture, not only of the location of storage sites, but also on their capacity, cost of development, and proximity to emission sources or expected lifetime. This parameter can only have three values low, medium or high based on several criteria, like storage formation quality, sealing formation quality, social issues, etc. This parameter only pretends to be used as a first step in a further decision making process. Finally, as a result of the work carried out in COMET it can be suggested that the West Mediterranean Region could be considered as a very promising area for pilot and demonstration projects of the CCS technology. There are storage opportunities in saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon fields, offshore and offshore, close to the coast and far from it, close to emission sources, at many different depths, in carbonated and sandstone reservoirs. Therefore, further work in the storage capacity identification needs to be done, to be able to identify the best opportunities to start demonstrating the technology and its commercial deployment in the future. Moreover, the development of roadmaps, storage atlas, consortia proposals, etc. Figure 13 provides an overview of the locations of the potential injection sites and storage capacity. The total storage capacity amounts to nearly 30 Gt. Spain holds a capacity of around 22 Gt sinks , Portugal 7. Notice, however, that offshore storage in Morocco was not assessed. As expected, the number of potential structures identified in Spain is very large, totalling , which reflects in the complexity of the clustering process. Because the site screening process in Portugal and Morocco was conducted at the sedimentary basin level, a much lower number of potential injection sites were identified, 36 in Portugal and only 9 in Morocco. Storage locations with a capacity lower than 3 Mt were not considered in the clustering process, nor are shown in the resulting maps. Obviously, these costs have a strong variation depending on the type of storage saline aquifers, hydrocarbon fields , location onshore, offshore , surface of the potential storage formation or the previous existence of wells or facilities. Furthermore the estimation of costs includes Investments needed, Capital costs and Operational costs, including monitoring and verification. Investment costs were estimated per potential CO2 storage site, on the basis of depth, thickness, injection rate per well and number of wells per storage site. Since most of the storage sites are onshore, brine production wells were not considered as an option to control pressure build-up. The investment costs for each specific sink were then estimated according to equation 1. Table 3 also shows the CO2 storage costs components. The number of wells depend on the storage potential of the sink and the injection rate per well for the sink. In case of re-use, these are the costs for the workovers of the old wells i. It also includes monitoring investment costs in pre-operational phase. Table 3 — Storage costs compoents. Taking into account the development costs, the variation of injection rate per site result in a considerable variation in storage costs, ranging from as low as 0. The resulting cost — cumulative capacity graph, in the two alternative geological model assumptions HIGH and LOW, assuming more optimistic and less optimistic injection rates per storage site , is reported in Figure Figure 14 - Cumulative storage cost curve in Spain, Portugal and Morocco What would be the possible routes of a CO2 transport infrastructure? Figure 15 - Flow diagram illustrating the GIS modelling strategy The GIS includes twelve primary themes that mostly relate to the cost of building pipelines, and eight auxiliary themes, used mainly for visualization or building maps purposes. Weights assigned to each of the variables considered were elected after extensive literature review and input from stakeholders experienced in managing natural gas pipelines table 4. High terrain factors to environmental protected areas and to very steep slopes were imposed to force routes avoiding those areas, in order to match the feedback from stakeholders. This modelling approach allows distinguishing between 20 different local conditions. Given that individual sources and potential sinks were identified in the study area, to take advantage of economies of scale, it is necessary to envisage a transport network composed of trunk lines collecting the CO2 from several nearby sources the source clusters and conducting it to groups of nearby injection sites the sink clusters. The individual sources were grouped in 55 clusters, with further 23 sources being left isolated due to distance from any other sources. The individual sinks were clustered in 29 clusters, of which three are transboundary clusters, with 14 remaining isolated Figure Table 4 - Investment cost model, standardized cost factor and terrain factors. The summation refers to the GIS cells along the pipeline route. This approach resulted in a total of possible pipeline routes, which were input to the TIMES-COMET model to conduct the source-sink match and defined the optimised hub connections for six scenarios of energy system and CO2 emissions reduction from to Figure Secondary networks were also simulated, using a similar procedure, for seven selected clusters, with the main aim of reflecting their cost in the trunk line costs optimised in the TIMES-COMET model. CCS infrastructures were critically reviewed and refined by stakeholders experienced in managing pipeline infrastructures, and insights were obtained to improve the models and the input parameters. Overall the modelling approach, combining the GIS with a TIMES-COMET partial equilibrium optimization model, proved very effective for generating the least cost transport networks and conduct a source-sink match that not only reflects the CO2 volumes captured and the available porous space, but that actually optimises the match by considering the storage costs and the transport costs. Appropriate cost models of both types of transport are applied for a few relevant cases in the West Mediterranean region. This assessment shows at which distances and CO2 volumes, vessel transport is the advantageous transport mode. Using the cost models of transport by ship and transport by vessel, it was assessed which transport mode is more cost-effective in a few relevant cases in the West Mediterranean region. Cost reduction potentials from the use of vessel transport instead of pipeline transport are identified in only a few cases on the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco. These are cases with low transport volumes, such as in Morocco, North Portugal and Faro. However, it needs to be identified whether these volumes justify CO2 storage at all. In order to carry out this assessment the project had to answer the following CCS related policy questions: i When and in what sectors CCS will become a cost-effective mitigation option within the framework of the energy systems of the three countries? What the optimal level is of captured as a function of the emission reduction level and future economic projections? What is the impact of restrictions on the configurations of the pipeline network? How robust are the conclusions in relation with technical economic development assumptions? These are complex policy questions. Answers have to take into account several quantitative and qualitative factors. Since the answers depend on the assumptions about the future development of uncertain events, a new TIMES-COMET model was developed and the traditional scenario approach was used to provide an initial set of quantitative elements useful for the answers. What is the temporal and spatial development of the least cost demanding transport network? In other words, an energy-transport model was necessary. The TIMES-COMET model achieves this objective and goes much further than previous experiences introducing several methodological innovations in the field of modelling and result analyses. Furthermore all of the multi-regional models built so far tacitly assume that the regions are contiguous. The first challenge was to represent in the TIMES framework, which was built for energy technology systems, the geo-referenced CCS infrastructure system, which is a typical transport model. It takes advantage of the high flexibility of the TIMES model generator in defining regions and trade processes among regions. Figure 18 - High level block diagram of the integrated TIMES-COMET model Running a unique hard-linked model is different than running four separate models with consistent exogenous assumptions: it means that the change in one component model changes the solution of the others, because the variables of the component models are linked by new equations and react to one another. In this new hybrid energy-transport model, regions and sub-regions interact in several ways, when the GHG emission reduction targets have to be met. Figure High level block diagram of the integrated TIMES-COMET model In this model, if a bound is imposed to the national energy models, for instance the availability of renewable resources, the results of the geographical model change, and vice-versa. If unfavourable geographical or geological conditions make the cost of capture transport and storage too high, the regional models reduce emissions by increasing the use of other mitigation options. If the energy demanded to the country regions by the sub-regions to run CCS costs too much, the energy supply mix of the country regions changes. In the sectors where the capture of CO2 is most expensive in the sub-regions, the country regions tend to use more efficient technologies or to switch fuels. It recomposes the geographical aspects of the model. In the static mode it illustrates the network as it is represented in the model, and the input assumptions on the relevant parameters. In the dynamic mode it illustrates for each scenario how the network develops over the years and displays in the map of the region the values of the geographically significant variables. In the comparison mode it illustrates the main changes among scenarios. The final challenge was to enable separate teams to work on their own energy models independently — for instance for national energy policy analyses - and still take advantage of all the improvements in the joint West Mediterranean energy-CCS model, without having to update it every time something is changed in a component model. This objective was achieved by keeping the four models — three representing the national energy systems of Morocco, Portugal and Spain, and the fourth one representing the geographical network — separate and merging them only at run time to form a unique model. The procedure builds a unique Linear Programming model of half a million variables and constraints, sends it to the CPLEX solver, reads the result files and compiles a result data base. Users access the results either downloading the full DB on their computers or logging in the web interface and producing to the most important tables, graphs and maps. Two economic developments have been assumed for Portugal and Spain. The 68 demands for energy services develop differently by sector and use, at a weighted average of 1. In other words, emission reductions implemented in Morocco are driven by the possibility for Spain and Portugal to purchase CDM permits from Morocco and not by any mitigation target imposed to Morocco. All scenarios assume the same technological developments, CCS technologies learning curves, CO2 unit transport costs, and policies of the whole energy sector. In the following pages only some results of the central scenario are summarised and the main conclusions illustrated. This reduction is achieved in the Iberian Peninsula adopting domestic measures and using international flexible mechanisms. In reaching the emission reduction targets of the Iberian Peninsula Morocco plays a complementary role. The country is not bound to any emission reduction, but can sell as emission permits the amount not emitted compared to the base line. Domestic energy systems and mitigation Domestic emissions are reduced by changing the energy system at the level of final energy consumption and at the primary supply level. In a first approximation, the reduction at the final level is the reduction of Non ETS end use sectors, namely agriculture, commerce, residential and transport. In fact the emissions of Spain and Portugal in these sectors remain almost constant till , and then they increase by 0. If compared to the emissions, it seems that only the supply system and the industrial ETS sectors contribute to reduce the emissions which are not captured and stored. The first component of this decoupling is the structural change of the country and a shift towards less energy intensive commodities. Observing past trends and more recent behaviours the national experts projected the demands for energy services to at growth rates lower than the GDP DEM input in Table 6. The second decoupling factor is the price dependence of the demand: higher prices of energy services tend to reduce the amount demanded and to shift the demand to less expensive commodities. This is modelled by making the demands dependent on own prices via average national sectoral price elasticities — Except for Morocco: due to lack of reliable data, the demand for energy services does not depend on own prices. This decoupling factor has the cumulative effect of reducing the virtual emissions to about MtCO2 in in the Iberian Peninsula. This is modelled by declaring in the energy system several new and more efficient end use devices in order to enable more efficient, although more expensive choice in the future. This third decoupling factor has the cumulative effect of reducing the virtual emissions down to about MtCO2 in This reduction also includes for instance the shifts from fossil fuel heating to electric heat pumps or from gasoline to electric hybrid or plug-in cars, which in fact shift the emissions from the end use sectors to suppliers. CCS in coal fuelled facilities starts in the iron and steel sector in , and in the cement and pulp and paper sectors in CCS in gas fuelled facilities starts in CCS in coal technologies will be in place 10 years earlier in cement i. Actually the industrial sectors where CCS is not applicable contribute to mitigation less than expected for at least two reasons. The first one is related to the expected technological development in the energy intensive sectors: the amount of energy necessary now to produce 1 ton of cement, or iron and steel, or glass in the up-to-date processes cannot be expected to reduce much since the theoretical limits are almost reached. These options are only partly accounted for in the technology database and the demand projections. Electricity generation The electricity generation sector is by far the most dynamic part of the energy system in the Iberian Peninsula, in terms of growth, technological change and contribution to mitigation. The capacity of natural gas power plants has increased from around 2. The year marks a transition: electricity from nuclear starts declining to completely disappear in and coal continues to decrease; at the same time gas and wind power increase. In the long term Spain will import electricity from Portugal where renewables are cheaper. Figure Evolution of the Spanish electricity system from to Portugal takes advantage of the huge potential of renewable energy sources. Along the time horizon, wind, mostly onshore, and hydro slowly tend toward their maximum potential. Biogas and biomass technologies for electricity production are not competitive in this scenario. Ocean and wave start contributing to the generation of electricity from onwards, wind offshore in The existing coal power plants will be decommissioned in and no additional coal capacity will be installed, either with or without CO2 capture. It is interesting to observe that the increase of renewable electricity generation occurs more rapidly as soon as than the penetration of gas-based generation. The second effect is even more important in this study: emissions from the electricity generation sector reduce at an average annual rate of 3. In absolute values the emissions instead of growing like the output decrease from to 32 MtCO2, including the emissions from plants equipped with capture. Figure Emissions and electricity in Morocco Conclusion of the scenario analysis Figure Dependence on energy system drivers: net emission The actual mix of mitigation measures depends on the assigned mitigation level Figure 29 and the marginal price of CO2 Figure CCS is chosen as soon as the cheapest energy related mitigation options are exploited. If CCS is not available more expensive domestic mitigation options have to be adopted. Since domestic policies and measures are not sufficient to meet even medium reduction targets, emission permits have to be bought from the Rest of the World. CCS is competitive and largely exploited under wide assumptions about possible future developments of the national energy systems and the CCS infrastructure system in the West Mediterranean region. Figure Dependence of CO2 prices on scenarios CCS remains a robust mitigation option under a wide set of possible future developments of the economy; lower economic growths reduce the market for CCS and delay the need to deploy it, but does not change its competiveness nor the main suggested infrastructures in the area. What is the spatial development of the least cost demanding transport network? Improving the assessment of the storage potential in Morocco and Portugal onshore seems a good research and development investment. Since the cost difference between the scenarios with free routes and the scenarios with routes following natural gas pipelines is negligible in terms of cost and cumulative storage, it seems that there is room for negotiating socially acceptable infrastructures layouts. Some conclusions can be extended outside the area of this study. If there is enough storage potential within a range of say one thousand kilometres from the sources, CCS is generally competitive and important amounts of CO2 emitted by large sources can be cost-effectively captured under wide assumptions about storage potentials and costs, transport routes and costs, capture technologies emissions and costs, costs of the main other mitigation technologies. Figure Capture C and storage S clusters, and pipeline network The competitiveness cost thresholds of capture by sector are robust and can be extended with little change to different areas since they depend on global technologies and international prices more than on local circumstances. If CCS is not available, less CO2 emissions are generated at a higher cost, using other more expensive mitigation options and buying expensive permits. The amount of CO2 that can be actually captured and stored heavily depends on the national reduction targets and the spatial concentration level of domestic industrial plants, namely the fraction emitted by large CO2 sources. These conclusions of the scenario analyses assume that by the end of this decade it will be demonstrated that the full chain of CCS is compatible with health, environment and social needs and by the beginning of the next it will be commercially available with the technical-economic characteristics projected today. This seems the most challenging research field for CCS. According to the results of this study, to improve the efficiency of the capture process and reduce energy consumption seems another very important area for research and development capable of improving the competitiveness of CCS. The contribution of the stakeholders Stakeholders industrials and policy makers were consulted regularly during the project: through stakeholders meetings in the three countries, or individual interviews where necessary. Before and afterwards, interviews have been held with the stakeholders. Among others, terrain factors for difficult terrains were adapted. Furthermore, based on the stakeholder workshops, the 6 main scenario variants were selected. The underlying main assumptions of these scenarios were considered realistic, and at the same time the mix of scenarios gave a broad overview of the possible CO2 network configurations in the West Mediterranean region. The transport infrastructure in the West Mediterranean region is characterized by an extensive transport infrastructure in Spain with long pipelines, and a limited network in Portugal and Morocco Figure Overall the total length of the pipelines is relatively long compared to the amounts of CO2 which are being captured. In 38 of the source clusters more than 25 MtCO2 is captured between and Around half of the source clusters in which less than 10 Mt CO2 was captured, were discarded, because the pipelines were too expensive in relation to the amount of CO2 transported. The other source clusters in which very little was captured, were more conveniently located close to other clusters in which CO2 was captured or stored. Most of the investments in trunkline transport infrastructure will be needed in the periods and Figure In the Conservative CCS scenario, pipeline investments amount up to 3. However, Free Routes with more freedom of selecting pipeline routes shows that investments in the period may be substantially lower while being able to store the same amount of CO2: investments around are 0. Another option to cut down the costs in the first period s is to postpone the construction of a number of pipelines which are highly oversized in the beginning. In a further evaluation it needs to be assessed which investments related to oversized pipelines e. The reason is that part of the investment costs consists of costs for drilling wells. These wells can be added gradually to increase the injection capacity. However, also in the case of storage sites high investment costs are needed upfront. These relate to mainly the site development costs. Further analysis, of the individual sinks within the clusters should indicate how much investments are needed at an earlier stage for these site development costs. Even if the role of CCS would be higher, storage capacity volumes do not seem to pose a problem. However, the injection rate based on the assumption that pressure-built up should be limited, is the restraining factor. For this reason, the number of wells per storage site has been limited depending on the characteristics of the storage site. Although, in Portugal, the injection rate does not seem to be a problem, it should be noted that the onshore injection rate is used to its maximum. In Spain, the amount of CO2 being stored could also double. However, CO2 storage would then need to be done in many more storage clusters. Instead of using around 9 clusters in our scenarios, each of the 32 clusters in Spain needs to be used. In the optimistic storage scenario, more optimistic assumptions were made to calculate annual injection rate Figure 36 which resulted in the possibility of more wells per storage site, and also slightly higher injection rates per well. In this scenario, the selection of CO2 storage clusters was hardly affected because the selected clusters already had a high injectivity rate in the Conservative CCS scenario with pessimistic storage assumptions. Only the amount of CO2 stored was different per cluster. Possibly, other ways can be explored that could decrease pressure-built up, such as the addition of water production wells. However, costs of drilling wells would be much higher, let alone costs for dealing with the highly saline water which is being produced, especially onshore. Figure 36 - Limitation of injection rate to use full storage capacity. From left to right: full storage capacity of WMR; maximum yearly injection rate if all sinks are being used; maximum amount of CO2 that can be stored if all sinks are being used; storage capacity that is left over after 30 years of maximum storage. Five sink clusters, all located in Spain, store more than three quarter of the cumulative amount in the WMR Table 8. Are there economic advantages in developing a common transport and storage network? Would a Western Mediterranean transport network be more cost effective for Portugal and Spain than linking to a Central Europe network? However, it could offer a few advantages. Spain with its huge storage capacity onshore could provide cheap storage options to Portugal and Morocco. Portugal does have enough storage options availabe, but these are located offshore and are, therefore, more expensive. The current assessments of storage capacity in Morocco imply a very limited storage capacity, and in this case, connections with other countries are necessary for CCS to be able to play any substantial role in Morocco. However, further assessment of the Moroccan underground, especially offshore, could reveal more CO2 storage potential in Morocco. Transboundary storage One of the questions within the COMET project was to explore possible benefits of using trans-boundary sites jointly by two or more countries. This cluster contains 5 storage sites with a total storage capacity of Mt. This cluster contains 4 storage sites with a high total yearly injection. However using this high injection rate would fill the cluster with an estimated capacity of Mt quite fast 3 storage sites within 10 years. This one only contains one storage site with a capacity of Mt and at a depth of meters below sea level. None of these clusters is identified to be favorouble in the CCS infrastructure configurations in the West Mediterranean region for two reasons. First, onshore storage is preferred above onshore storage due to the higher costs offshore. Secondly, the clusters were far away from the CO2 sources. In the cases, the model choose these clusters, the flows were too small to justify the pipeline investment costs. In such a scenario, the clusters S01 and S07 may become more interesting candidates for trans-boundary CO2 storage. Based on the analysis of costs and revenues, it was found that in combination with EOR, this could be a cost-effective option. However, our analysis also has shown that Iberian Peninsula has a disadvantage in a competition for scarce storage sites in the North Sea due to the transport cost. Only with low economic growth 50 Mt would be sufficient. Although, in , this amount is similar in both the low as high mitigation scenarios, in it is clearly different: 74 Mt is avoided by CCS in the high mitigation scenario versus 44 Mt in the low mitigation scenarios. These components include detailed overviews of CO2 sources and CO2 sinks in WMR, detailed descriptions of possible CO2 transport network infrastructures and finally, an overview of drivers, synergies, and barriers related to such an infrastructure. The detailed descriptions which resulted from the modelling work show among others when, where, and how much CO2 is captured, transported and stored in the different scenarios among others in tables, figures and GIS maps. These also include information on associated costs and investments and are meant to give an elaborate impression of possible development trajectories of a CCS infrastructure in the West Mediterranean region over time. The overview of drivers, synergies and barriers DBS , provides an inventory of the DBS in the international literature, and this was supplemented by information found at the national level i. Based on this inventory, actions were identified to overcome the barriers and enhance synergies The basis is laid for identifying and assessing promising CO2 transport networks in the West Mediterranean region. Many lessons have been drawn which are related to physical aspects of the network e. The models and tools developed and data collected within COMET, provide opportunities to further refine these lessons and translate them into a CCS roadmap Stakeholder involvement and awareness Stakeholders industrials and policy makers were consulted regularly during the project: through stakeholders meetings in the three countries, or individual interviews where necessary. The involvement of stakeholders throughout the whole duration of the project had multiple benefits: - Regular presentation and update on the work planned and done in COMET allowed checking and maintaining the relevance of the work done in the project for the stakeholders. They gave feedback on the scenarios chosen, the energy modelling results, and the CO2 transport network. They advised to discard also specific trajectories going through difficult terrains. It demonstrates that the technology rich partial economic equilibrium TIMES model generator can build spatially detailed hybrid energy-transport models. Although it was possible to represent in a single hard-linked bottom-up model the national energy technology systems with continuous variables and the capacity of CO2 pipelines with integer variables, the model had too many integer variables to solve with the best available solvers CPLEX. In this field further research is needed. Additional analysis with the models developed and data collected in the COMET project, could further optimize the design and planning of this infrastructure. These improvements would be related to all three elements in the CCS chain, capture, transport, and storage. First, adjustments to the CCS role in a mitigation portfolio can follow from more detailed analysis of the future plans of the sources e. From this analysis, also insights can be obtained how CO2 capture can be more concentrated in a limited amount of clusters. Secondly, an in-depth assessment of important transport connections and their alternatives is needed. Thirdly, as the capacity and injection rate of storage sites are determining factors for the whole infrastructure, but are also uncertain, strategies are needed to design the infrastructure so that it can cope with these uncertainties. COMET aimed to generated insights into cost-effective strategies that take into account scale effects induced by integrating multiple sources and sinks in three different countries. One of the main impacts from COMET are to provide tools and knowledge that can participate to overcome these two barriers. Standardised estimation of potential CO2 storage capacities The first identification of potential storage sites and the estimation of available capacities in Portugal and Morocco were done in COMET. No work in that area has been conducted so far for these two countries. In Portugal the onshore and offshore capacities were estimated and this, with the work of nationally funded activities, lead to the idea of a potential pilot for test injection of CO2 onshore. The knowledge of the actual storage capacity distribution in Portugal mainly offshore should allow the administration to shift the focus of the regulations away from onshore considerations that was in the center of the discussions in the transposition of the directive In Morocco the capacity estimates were conducted in a selection of basins on shore. The results of different scenario in comet showed the necessity to further study the storage capacity in Morocco especially offshore, as it was the limiting factor for deployment of CCS in that country. The estimation of potential CO2 storage capacities in Portugal, Spain and Morocco was done with the same set of criteria following the Geocapacity methodology. In that sense, Spain has updated the database including a large amount of information that was not available for GeoCapacity and including a certain evaluation offshore, although very little can be said about that because of confidentiality issues. All information has been compiled in a database that is very valuable information for stakeholders wish to undertake CCS in the region. The methodology followed to assign storage costs was largely based on the number of wells, injection rates, surface area and many other parameters characterising each site. The results clearly indicate where and which data should be acquired and how that can affect the storage costs. This information can be used in subsequent studies to prioritise research efforts in the region to reduce uncertainty in the storage sites parameters and in the storage costs. As a side effect of the storage capacity assessment work but still very valuable the general knowledge of the deep underground in the region has greatly improved. New digitalized data has been made available for other researchers to perform further study on the topic but also others such as geothermal energy or shale gas. Optimization of transport mode: The identification of sources with expected emissions volumes and sinks with expected storage capacities , has enabled to define clusters of sources and sinks, and to identify isolated sources. The GIS tool used in in the project has produced optimal source and sink matches, in terms of proximity, volume of emissions and availability of storage capacity. COMET was able to retrieve the cost effective transport option for each cluster source over different periods of time. In this respect, COMET has looked at different scales of transport, from local to transnational, dealing with the most suitable transport mode s from every cluster of sources to either the storage or the higher scale transport mode over time. It is thought that this approach is of great relevance to the deployment of CCS, since ultimately each major source will have to decide upon the economic viability of deploying CCS. The methodology on the optimization of transport mode can be used and applied in other regions. The results of the project, namely its technical and economic cost analysis, provide a framework for similar studies across Europe and other parts of the world. Regulatory aspects The European Directive on Carbon Capture and Storage, approved in by the European Council specifically mentions that the provision that storage of EU emissions can only occur within EU border limits. The Directive establishes a legal framework for the environmentally safe geological storage of CO2 and covers all CO2 storage in geological formations in the EU, and lays down requirements covering the entire lifetime of a storage site. The CCS Directive lays down extensive requirements for the site selection, which is a crucial stage for ensuring the integrity of a project. A site can only be selected for use if a prior analysis shows that, under the proposed conditions of use, there is no significant risk of leakage or damage to human health or the environment. The amount of pre-existing data, current knowledge and geological complexity of a site will influence the decision as to what is required to search for, prove, and develop a geological storage site at any given location. As such, some sites and storage types may more rapidly be able to reach levels of proof than others. COMET has contributed extensively to improve the current knowledge of CO2 potential in the WMR to make an informed and knowledgeable decision on a development plan for storage. The Directive was already translated to the Spanish and Portuguese law and will be revised during this year. This experience can be translated in a valid contribution for the revision of the European Directive, thus leading to a more robust definition of the regulatory issues governing the deployment of CCS in Europe and third countries. The overview of drivers, synergies and barriers for the development provided an inventory of the the international literature, and this was supplemented by information found at the national level i. The involvement of stakeholders throughout the whole duration of the project had multiple benefits ensuring the validity in the region of the results provided by COMET. The impact of different policies or scenarios can be studied, as for example the low economic growth scenario or high CO2 reduction targets. Coupled with the GIS, it also allows seeing the spatial evolution over time. This is of interest in policy making to compare potential impacts of different policies and for industrial to get insight of potential developments of the technology and the energy sector. For instance knowing that even in case of low growth scenario, CCS results as necessary to reach the targets in the most cost effective way, could bring policy makers to reach timely decisions on supporting CCS. In countries such as Spain, where regional autonomy is an important part of the decision process, the spatial development of the transport and storage infrastructure across several regions can provide a motivation for different regions to discuss how best to operationalize the CCS infrastructure. The model constitutes therefore a tool to help overcome the lack of outlook for CCS in general. The comparisons of the scenarios allowing transnational transport to the ones without allow quantifying the economy of scale that it permits. The taking into account of the regional specificity in identifying the barriers and drivers for the CCS infrastructure development in the region make the outcomes of COMET relevant to the considered countries, while the identified transboundary storage opportunities and cross-frontier pipelines in some scenarios, promote the need for transnational cooperation of these three countries in the CCS domain. In addition the methodology developed in COMET could be used somewhere else in Europe or in the world to assess the development of CCS infrastructure and the opportunity of Common network between different countries. For instance in the Baltic region Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland , where the storage capacity and CO2 emissions are very unevenly distributed, could get very valuable insight on possible CCS development. There are several significant legal issues when considering transboundary projects including: the classification of CO2; the legality of its transportation under international and domestic agreements; the likely impact upon nascent or pre-existing liability and CO2 infrastructure regimes; as well as the interplay between jurisdictions and regulators. These components include detailed overviews of CO2 sources and CO2 sinks, detailed descriptions of possible CO2 transport network infrastructures and finally, an overview of drivers, synergies, and barriers related to such an infrastructure. However, economies of scale can play an important role, since the interlinking between the energy sectors in the three countries and some continuity in geological features allow for investors to envisage the deployment of CCS in the West Mediterranean as a unified case. The ultimate objective of the project was to allow the deployment of CCS as a tool that enables European and neighbouring countries to comply with the European Union goals of reduction of greenhouse gases from the energy and industrial sector. COMET has allowed a better sharing and, in the end a better spreading, of the results towards other transboundary areas. This is further reinforced by the involvement of a North Africa country, a region with which the EU wants to cooperate increasingly towards the development of the region and towards a safe fossil fuel supply to Europe. COMET has compared the advantages of building such transnational infrastructures against more nationwide focused alternatives. The outcome of this analysis is a major step forward in the deployment of CCS in the West Mediterranean area and may serve as a base case that could be referred to for other transnational CCS analyses. Dissemination and capacity building in fast developing countries Analyses of potential CO2 reduction options for the energy supply and conversion sectors have indicated that about half of the potential mitigation should be achieved in developing countries. The importance of deploying CCS in these countries is considered a main priority if CCS is to play a significant role as a mitigation option Nevertheless, assessments and efforts conducted so far to speed the deployment of CCS in developing countries has been limited. COMET involved developed and developing countries in a common effort to find the best common solution to jointly address deployment of CCS. Strong effort was made to raise awareness on the technology that was before unknown to most. Special training sessions have been organized towards key industrials and key state representatives. Interest was expressed by them especially in the frame of the Clean Development mechanism. The results of the models were presented to them and Capacity building was effective in making the Moroccan research teams up to date with the technology and the storage capacity assessment methodology. Training was also presented to students in different universities in order to touch the next generation of scientist. The Stakeholders meetings had also a very important component of capacity building. Awareness raising, capacity estimates, study of potential development of CCS over time and capacity building constitute the first steps towards enabling CCS projects in the country. On-going efforts strive to gather all these results on a full regional or national roadmap. However additional funding is necessary for this. Other opportunities nationally or internationally are being looked for. This cooperation may lead to further ones, in order to have a wide exploitation of the data obtained by COMET. The small consulting companies which participated to the project will be able to take advantage of these new features to provide and use geo-referenced energy-transport model base on the MARKAL-TIMES system. List of Websites: comet. Share this page. Last update: 8 July Booklet My Booklet. This site uses cookies to offer you a better browsing experience. I accept cookies. I refuse cookies. Go to my data extractions. Your booklet is ready Your booklet is ready. Please check your My Booklet page for more information.

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