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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Key findings and threat assessment. Global context. Trafficking and supply. Retail markets. Criminal networks. Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. The affordability of drugs is a measure that incorporates drug purity or potency and accounts for differing national economic conditions, as quantified in the price level indices see Groshkova et al. Using affordability as a measure allows a more sophisticated comparison of retail drug markets across countries and over time. Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Meanwhile the retail price of resin products has, on average, remained stable during the same year period. Several developments already raised in this report have likely contributed to the increase in resin potency. These include the introduction of new cannabis strains and new cultivation and resin extraction techniques in Morocco see Section Cannabis resin production outside the EU. In addition, it is also possible that the amount of high-potency cannabis resin produced in Europe is increasing. These recent trends seem to confirm a finding reported in the previous edition of this report EMCDDA and Europol, , namely that cannabis resin may have become a more attractive product to some consumers in the EU, especially for those who seek high-potency cannabis products. Data on the prevalence of cannabis use, expressed in estimated numbers of users during the last year, may be viewed as an indicator of the location and approximate size of retail markets. Historically, cannabis has been the most used illicit drug in Europe, with currently around 84 million adults in the European Union aged , or As is the case with other drugs, the majority of cannabis users in Europe are males, who on average are twice as likely to report use as females. Overall, the prevalence of cannabis use in Europe appears to have remained stable over the past decade, although prevalence of use has increased in some of the countries that already had the highest rates of use, such as Croatia, Czechia, the Netherlands and Spain. Recent trends based on data from 15 countries that have conducted surveys on last-year cannabis use since indicate that levels of use have increased in four countries, remained stable in six countries and decreased in five countries. However, it appears to have affected patterns of use, with more frequent herbal cannabis users consuming more and infrequent users consuming less, on average. This trend was less marked for cannabis resin see Section How cannabis products are retailed in Europe. The most recent data available on last-year use indicate that the largest retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin continue to be located in western and southern Europe. Young adults make up the majority of last-year cannabis users in Europe, representing an estimated Germany and Spain follow, with 3. In terms of estimated total numbers of cannabis users, Czechia and Poland appear to be the largest retail markets in the Eastern part of the EU, with an estimated 0. It is estimated that around 3. Cannabis prevalence data do not discriminate between the different products used. These proportions are indicative as the EWSD is not representative of the entire European population. In wastewater analysis, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far, although it is excreted in low percentages Causanilles et al. There are several challenges and uncertainties in the wastewater analysis of THC-COOH, related to factors such as the analytical measurements and poorly understood excretion rates Bijlsma et al. In addition, this type of analysis is not able to discriminate between the different cannabis products consumed. Overall, research to develop alternative biomarkers is needed and caution is required when interpreting trends based on THC-COOH loads in wastewater. A stable or decreasing trend in the THC-COOH loads was observed for almost all of the 23 cities with available data for the period. In countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found in the THC-COOH loads when comparing large and small cities. Wastewater analysis can also detect fluctuations in patterns of illicit drug use across the week. In summary, the wastewater data indicate that, unlike the use of other drugs, such as cocaine EMCDDA, a , the European cannabis market is relatively stable overall since THC-COOH is present in both large and small urban areas and evidence of use is distributed evenly over the week. A further data source pointing to overall stability in the cannabis market is that of treatment demand for cannabis use problems. Based on the data available from 25 countries, the numbers entering specialised drug treatment for cannabis problems in Europe remained stable between and On average, clients entered treatment for cannabis problems every year during those four years. Similarly, an average of 58 people a year entered treatment for the first time in their lives during that period, with a 1. However, the number of treatment entrants declined noticeably in This is indicative of how the COVID pandemic affected treatment provision and demand as well as the monitoring of these services across Europe. While the numbers entering treatment increased slightly in , they still remained below the levels. The lack of rebound in treatment entries for cannabis problems in to pre-pandemic levels may be related to several factors. As a consequence, help-seeking and the ability to access services remained subdued. In addition, services continued to operate within strict infection prevention conditions, which reduced treatment capacity and intake. The data available may also mask a greater use of tele-medicine during this period, which was not captured by the treatment demand indicator. Finally, there may have also been a natural reduction in treatment demand due to reduced use of cannabis during the pandemic among some groups. Note: Trends in first-time entrants are based on data from 25 countries. Only countries with data for at least five of the six years are included in the trends analysis. Missing values are interpolated from adjacent years. Because of disruptions to services due to COVID, data for and should be interpreted with caution. Missing data were imputed from values for the previous year for Spain and France and Germany Since the total number of herbal cannabis seizures in Europe has exceeded those involving resin, and this continued to be the case in This appears to confirm that herbal cannabis is more widely consumed than cannabis resin in Europe. The majority of seizures of the two main cannabis products reported in Europe, namely herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, are probably confiscated on retail markets since they involve amounts of grams or less. In a context of consistently high drug availability at the retail level, a finite, but constant, level of law enforcement resources deployed to police illicit cannabis markets has likely influenced the relative stability in numbers of seizures. It is therefore probable that if more, or less, law enforcement resources were available to police these retail markets, seizure trends would vary commensurately. Both of these figures are underestimates since no data are available for from countries that usually report large numbers of seizures, such as France and Germany. By comparison, the total number of cocaine seizures, the second largest drug market in Europe, was estimated at 71 in Europe that same year. These countries thus have a substantial impact on overall seizure trends in Europe. Some of the overall reduction in cannabis seizures may be due to fewer police resources being focused on enforcing drug laws at the retail level in , as officers were mobilised to enforce COVID restrictions. In addition, prolonged lockdown periods likely drove many cannabis users and dealers out of public spaces. Although the use of herbal cannabis is fairly long-standing in these countries, the comparatively low prevalence of use in most countries and their generally smaller population sizes result in retail markets that are much smaller than those in the relatively more affluent and populated western and northern parts of Europe see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Trends in numbers of seizures of cannabis resin and herb in these 11 central and eastern European countries present a somewhat different picture from the rest of Europe, characterised by less stability and an overall increase for both products, at least until A similar pattern can be observed in Europe as a whole. However, in the case of cannabis resin seizures, the pattern in the east of the EU differs markedly from the overall European picture, which shows numbers of resin seizures having risen back to nearly pre-pandemic levels in Overall, these trends seem to indicate that cannabis retail markets in the eastern part of the EU are growing, unlike those in most of the rest of Europe. However, the impact of COVID in eastern Europe, particularly on resin, seems to be stronger and longer lasting than in the rest of the continent see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Cannabis oil has long been a marginal product on European consumer markets, with the total number of European seizures rarely reaching more than per year since reporting began in These five countries may therefore be viewed as emerging retail markets for cannabis oil in Europe, although several other countries with high prevalence of cannabis use do not report seizures of oil. These findings, together with an increase in the quantity of oil seized see Section Cannabis trafficking and supply: record quantities seized in , could indicate that cannabis oil is slowly gaining popularity among some European consumers. Some of the comparatively newer cannabis consumer products, such as butane hash oil BHO , rosin or cannabis wax, that have become available in Europe in recent years see Figure Cannabis: taxonomy of products traditional and modern are probably manufactured by consumers themselves from their own cannabis crops or from herbal or resin material purchased from dealers. However, some of these products may also be the result of commercial manufacturing in Europe and elsewhere. For instance, there have been seizures of such products at European postal hubs and airports, in parcels and on flights from Canada and the United States. Some of these products have also been seized in the United States on their way to Europe. These seizures usually involve small amounts, weighing a few hundred grams or less, although larger quantities are seized occasionally. For instance, in , a total of almost 58 kilograms of cannabis wax from the United States was seized in Germany. In , some 4. Other products such as edibles and e-cigarette liquids appear to have emerged in Europe more recently. They tend to be manufactured more professionally, often in third countries. The development of novel cannabis consumer products has been particularly dynamic and fast-paced in countries where cannabis has been regulated for recreational use, especially Canada and some parts of the United States. A broad range of products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids, such as HHC, are available from online shops in some EU countries. Cannabis edibles are foods that are infused with cannabinoids Barrus et al. They can mimic popular brands of foods, particularly sweets and other snack products see Photo Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in and Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Commercial edibles appear to have become increasingly popular in some North American jurisdictions following cannabis policy changes. While they are usually subject to strict regulations aimed at reducing the potential harms and risks associated with their use, counterfeit, unlicensed and illegal cannabis edibles have nevertheless appeared on North American cannabis markets Health Canada, They are sold on darknet markets, through social media see Section Online distribution of cannabis products and at street level. Of particular concern are recent German federal police reports indicating an increase in the availability of THC-infused edibles, some of which are sold in packages mimicking branded sweets see Boxes Edibles: increased risks of poisoning and Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Based on the data currently available, it is difficult to estimate the size of the European market for cannabis edibles, or their manufacturing locations and trafficking routes. In particular, North America appears to be an important source. E-liquids liquids used in electronic vaping devices containing concentrates of phytocannabinoids, semi-synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids appear to have become available and increasingly popular among European consumers over the past few years. Included in this category are products containing synthetic cannabinoids mis-sold as containing THC or CBD, which can pose a high risk of poisoning because of their high potency EMCDDA, b, c see Box e-Liquids containing synthetic cannabinoids detected in France. Similar to many other recently emerging cannabis consumer products, cannabis e-liquids and associated products were initially developed in North America, where they are now widely available and popular, particularly among young people Lim et al. In the United States, in the summer of , there was an outbreak of e-cigarette or vaping use-associated lung injury EVALI related to counterfeit products containing deltaTHC, most probably due to contamination with vitamin E acetate. This outbreak resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people and thousands of hospitalisations across the country CDC, ; Duffy et al. However, insufficient information is available to adequately assess the potential toxicity of newer products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids Meehan-Atrash and Rahman, Most of these appear to have been smuggled in from North America see Box Seizures of cannabis liquids and oils destined for Europe. Cannabis is bought, sold and traded in a variety of ways across Europe using both offline and online methods. Offline methods include the use of dealers in open, semi-open and closed settings. Open markets can be street-based markets May and Hough, ; Skliamis and Korf, while semi-open markets are often located in clubs and other quasi-private settings Tzanetakis, In closed markets business is conducted on a trust basis Potter, Online methods include purchases facilitated via the surface web, social media channels and the darknet. These could be considered semi-open settings, whereby no established relationship is usually required, but buyers have to subscribe or register with channels and platforms to gain access. In online methods, monetary transactions and deliveries may take place without any face-to-face contact, as is especially the case with purchases over the darknet. Sometimes, however, online methods simply facilitate the contact between buyers and sellers, for example via social media, and the exchange of money and drugs might still take place in person Mounteney et al. Evidence indicates that cannabis is relatively frequently shared within peer groups, sometimes without any monetary exchange or in a non-commercial or non-profit manner. This also extends to cannabis resin. Similarly, a study among cannabis coffeeshop visitors in Amsterdam from seven different European countries 4 , investigating how participants usually acquired cannabis in their home countries, found that, in the past 12 months, While the social supply of cannabis seems to be relatively prevalent in the EU, research indicates that the sources from which users acquire their cannabis vary between countries. However, the proportion of participants who reported buying from friends and street dealers differed greatly between the seven countries included in the study. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Smaller numbers also reported using edibles 8 and cannabis oil 5 Some of these respondents provided detailed information enabling analysis of how herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are retailed in Europe. This finding supports other research indicating the growth of internet-based methods for purchasing drugs Barratt et al. However, the use of these methods appears to differ significantly between countries in Europe Skliamis and Korf, It should be noted that the results of the EWSD cannot readily be generalised to any larger populations. Significant differences among European countries were also apparent in the use of different delivery methods see Table Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. At the aggregate level, for the 7 EWSD respondents reporting how they usually buy cannabis resin, and how it is delivered to them, the results are broadly similar to those of herbal cannabis see Figures In the last 12 months, how did you usually buy cannabis resin hashish? At the country-level, however, some differences are observable see Table Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Delivery methods were shown by the EWSD to be fairly consistent between cannabis resin and herbal cannabis at the aggregate level see Figure In the last 12 months, how was the cannabis resin hashish usually delivered to you? As already indicated, a range of sources of acquisition and delivery methods are used for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin in Europe see Tables Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin and Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. The data appear to point to distinct retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, both in Europe as a whole and within individual countries, although caution is required when comparing these data, due to small sample sizes in some countries and also because of the relatively small sample size for resin. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that it is important to analyse the herbal cannabis and cannabis resin markets separately Vuolo and Matias, Data from eight darknet markets gathered in Cannazon, Alphabay, ASAP, Cypher, Dark0dereborn, Royal, Versus and World showed a total of 13 unique listings 5 sale offers for cannabis products reported as being shipped from an EU country in To put this in context, while not directly comparable, in a similar scanning exercise conducted in , 10 listings were found for cocaine and 1 for methamphetamine. This includes high-THC products such as concentrates e. However, caution is needed in interpreting these data as neither the number of transactions nor the number of individual sellers can be extrapolated from the number of listings alone. Nonetheless, listings provide a useful indicator of the activity on darknet markets. The typical quantity most frequently observed value of herbal cannabis offered was 5 grams 1 listings , followed by 10 grams 1 and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 14 in 74 listings of 1 gram. In , bulk listings of herbal cannabis were observed see Table Quantity and price details of bulk herbal cannabis listings shipping from EU, The typical quantity of cannabis resin offered in was 5 grams , followed by 10 grams and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 15 in 20 listings of 1 gram. There were 64 bulk listings of cannabis resin observed in However, due to the limited price data available for analysis, caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings. A small proportion of the listings on darknet markets in included cannabis concentrates and edibles. Social media platforms are frequently used to promote and sell cannabis products see forthcoming EU Drug Markets: Drivers and Facilitators , section on Social media and instant messaging apps. Cannabis products have been found to feature prominently on Facebook, where they represent the majority of the drug content advertised for sale, as seen in Denmark, Iceland and Sweden Demant et al. Overall, social media platforms appear to be frequently used to promote drug sales, sometimes using creative photo or video editing or other marketing techniques Geoffroy, ; Paolini and Lepoivre, ; MCP, ; see also Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Cannabis influencers, that is, individuals promoting cannabis products to their followers on social media platforms, have become particularly active on Instagram. While most cannabis influencers appear to be male, there are indications that female influencers are becoming more active on social media Bakken and Harder, This may be part of a broader push towards commercialising cannabis and attempting to sell licensed and unlicensed products to a mainstream audience, in addition to influencing ongoing policy debates. Estimating the size of illicit drug markets is inherently difficult and cannabis is no exception. Nevertheless, because cannabis is the drug most frequently used in Europe and its use generally has a higher level of social acceptance compared to other illicit drugs, there are comparatively more comprehensive and robust data relating to its use. These data enable a more accurate estimation of the size of the illicit market for cannabis. However, this market is becoming increasingly complex due to the emergence of new products, for which data are limited. Thus, any estimate of the size of the illicit cannabis market is restricted to herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Using the methodology established by the EMCDDA b , it was estimated that cannabis products account for the largest share of the overall illicit drug retail market in the EU, with an estimated value in of at least EUR Out of this total, the illicit market for herbal cannabis was estimated to be worth at least EUR 8. In comparison, the illicit cannabis resin market was estimated to be worth at least EUR 2. This estimate is based on the number of users and their patterns of use, the amount used per year and the average price paid at the retail level. This method, often called a demand-side approach, however, is prone to underestimation due to the misreporting and under-reporting of use Udrisard et al. The basic model used in the estimation process can be expressed in the following simple arithmetic form:. The estimated number of cannabis users was calculated based on prevalence data from general population surveys GPS and categorised according to frequency of use see Box Links between frequency of use and sources of acquiring cannabis. Separate estimates were generated for cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, and, given the high numbers of cannabis users, it was possible to obtain information on the amounts of each product used by different types of users. Individuals were categorised into four different groups according to frequency of cannabis use, as follows:. Taken together, these data were used to estimate the illicit retail market size for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin respectively. There are limitations to this method. For example, for some variables where no data were available, it was necessary to impute values. This included instances when a country had no price data, in which case a simple average of the values for the other countries was used, and when prevalence data was not available for , instead of which the latest available data were used. Occasionally, EU Member States construct their own market size estimates for drugs that are particularly relevant at the national level. For example, Czech authorities have developed an estimate for the market size of methamphetamine, the most prevalent synthetic stimulant used in the country. Based on the latest available data, this illicit cannabis market had an estimated annual turnover of EUR 1. Such national estimates are useful to contextualise the overall EU estimate. In a literature review conducted for this analysis Udrisard et al. Europe featured as a region of focus in two of the studies and nine of the studies looked at cannabis alone. The majority used a demand-side approach, while two employed a supply-side methodology see Box Supply-side approaches to estimating the size of illicit drug markets , and three used a combination of both. As already highlighted, estimating cannabis consumption using wastewater is challenging, and more research is needed in this area, which may improve the use of this method in the future Causanilles et al. Ten of the studies employing the demand-side approach augmented user numbers by drawing on general population surveys and complementary sources to account for under-represented user populations. These include, for example, teenagers aged 15 and under, people with high-risk patterns of use, such as opioid users, or prisoners and homeless populations, all of whom may be excluded, to varying degrees, from GPS but can represent a significant number of cannabis users. All of the demand-side attempts to estimate illicit drug market sizes suffer from under-reporting, whereby people report no use or less frequent use, or do not respond to a representative survey, such as a GPS. Among the 15 papers using survey data, seven applied correction factors for under-reporting in order to provide new prevalence rates Udrisard et al. Data on quantities used also present issues that require a degree of interpretation and making assumptions. For example, while two studies asked questions about how many cannabis joints were smoked, neither asked about the typical amount of cannabis contained in one joint. To fill such data gaps, information on quantities used can be collected via non-representative surveys that specifically target people who use drugs. This is the basis for using data from the European Web Survey on Drugs to develop an EU-level estimate of the illicit cannabis market. It is notable that while some studies considered the issue of cannabis sharing and how this impacted on their market size estimates, it was concluded that there was no real evidence of a global overestimation. While estimates were not revised to account for this potential issue, researchers have strongly recommended further research in this area Udrisard et al. The study conducted for estimating the size of illicit drug markets in the EU concluded that there remains a strong suspicion that demand-based estimates, especially for the drugs most used in Europe, underestimate the real size of these markets Udrisard et al. Nevertheless, the expert consultation that was part of the study confirmed that there are very few alternatives to demand-based approaches for drug market estimates. Overall, further research is needed in this area. Further information is available online. However, respondents from these partner countries are not included in the analysis presented in this report. Consult the list of references used in this module. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Table of contents Search within the book. Introduction Introduction Key findings and threat assessment Key findings and threat assessment Global context Global context Production Production Trafficking and supply Trafficking and supply Retail markets Retail markets Criminal networks Criminal networks Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. Search within the book Operator Any match. Exact term match only. Main subject. Target audience. Publication type. EU Drug Market: Cannabis — main page. On this page.

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Buy cocaine online in Koper

These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. The analysis of municipal wastewaters for drugs and their metabolic products to estimate community consumption is a developing field, involving scientists working in different research areas, including analytical chemistry, physiology, biochemistry, sewage engineering, spatial epidemiology and statistics, and conventional drug epidemiology. This page presents the findings from studies conducted since Data from all studies can be explored through an interactive tool, and a detailed analysis of the findings of the most recent study, in , is presented. See our wastewater analysis hub page for more resources on this topic. Please note that due to the large amount of data involved processed on this page, it may take some moments before all content appears. In this section you can explore the data from the most recent study in , as well as from previous studies. Each study reveals a picture of distinct geographical and temporal patterns of drug use across European cities. Clicking on a symbol in the graph or the map will show more detailed information for a given wastewater treatment plant. You can also select a site from the drop-down menu. Preparing the data The data explorer is designed to work with most modern browsers but if this message is still visible after 1 minute, we recommend trying again with another browser. The findings of the largest European project to date in the emerging science of wastewater analysis are presented in this section. The results provide a valuable snapshot of the drug flow through the cities involved, revealing marked geographical variations. Wastewater analysis is a rapidly developing scientific discipline with the potential for monitoring real-time data on geographical and temporal trends in illicit drug use. Originally used in the s to monitor the environmental impact of liquid household waste, the method has since been used to estimate illicit drug consumption in different cities Daughton, ; van Nuijs et al. It involves sampling a source of wastewater, such as a sewage influent to a wastewater treatment plant. This allows scientists to estimate the quantity of drugs consumed by a community by measuring the levels of illicit drugs and their metabolites excreted in urine Zuccato et al. In , a Europe-wide network Sewage analysis CORe group — Europe SCORE was established with the aim of standardising the approaches used for wastewater analysis and coordinating international studies through the establishment of a common protocol of action. The first activity of the SCORE group was a Europe-wide investigation, performed in in 19 European cities, which allowed the first ever wastewater study of regional differences in illicit drug use in Europe Thomas et al. That study included the first intercalibration exercise for the evaluation of the quality of the analytical data and allowed a comprehensive characterisation of the major uncertainties of the approach Castiglioni et al. A standard protocol and a common quality control exercise were used in all locations, which made it possible to directly compare illicit drug loads in Europe over a one-week period during 10 consecutive years van Nuijs et al. Raw hour composite samples were collected during a single week between March and May in the majority of the cities. These samples were analysed for the urinary biomarkers i. In addition, the samples were analysed for the main urinary metabolites i. The specific metabolite of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, has been found to be unstable in wastewater. Consequently, the only alternative is to use morphine, although it is not a specific biomarker and can also be excreted as a result of therapeutic use. The project findings revealed distinct geographical and temporal patterns of drug use across European cities see the data explorer. The annual SCORE wastewater sampling presented here, from 88 cities, showed that, overall, the loads of the different stimulant drugs detected in wastewater in varied considerably across study locations, although all illicit drugs investigated were found in almost every city that participated. For the first time, data from outside Europe is also shown and compared against European cities. The BE loads observed in wastewater indicate that cocaine use remains highest in western and southern European cities, in particular in cities in Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain. Low levels were found in the majority of the eastern European cities, although the most recent data continues to show signs of increase. The loads of amphetamine detected in wastewater varied considerably across study locations, with the highest levels being reported in cities in the north and east of Europe, as in previous years. Amphetamine was found at much lower levels in cities in the south of Europe, although with the most recent data showing some signs of increase. The observed methamphetamine loads in the other locations were very low, although most recent data show signals of increases in central European cities. For the second time, ketamine loads are being published. The highest mass loads were found in the wastewater in cities in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The study highlighted differences between these cities within the same country, which may be explained in part by the different social and demographic characteristics of the cities universities, nightlife areas and age distribution of the population. Interestingly, in the majority of countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found when comparing large cities to smaller locations for all substances. In addition to geographical patterns, wastewater analysis can detect fluctuations in weekly patterns of illicit drug use. More than three quarters of cities show higher loads of amphetamine, BE, ketamine and MDMA in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays. Seventy-three cities have participated in at least five of the annual wastewater monitoring campaigns since This allows for time trend analysis of drug consumption based on wastewater testing. Cannabis is Europe's most commonly used illicit drug, with an estimated However, both the level of use and trends in use reported in recent national data appear heterogeneous. In wastewater, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far. Although it is excreted in a low percentage and more research is still needed Causanilles et al. In , there were diverging trends with 20 cities out of 51 reporting an increase in THC-COOH loads in wastewater samples, and 15 a decrease. Low levels were found in the majority of the eastern European cities, but the most recent data continues to show signs of increases. When comparing to study locations outside the European Union, cities in Brazil, Switzerland and in the United States show similar levels of use as the cities in Europe with the highest loads. A relatively stable picture of cocaine use was observed between and in most cities. The data revealed further increases in cocaine residues in most cities when compared to data, with 49 out of 72 cities reporting an increase, while 13 cities reported no change and 10 cities reported a decrease. An overall increase is seen for all 10 cities with data for both and These 7 cities were selected owing to the availability of annual data from to Contrary to previous years, in most countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found when comparing large cities to smaller locations. More than three quarters of cities show higher loads of BE in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, which may reflect a pattern of more recreational use. A recent European project on wastewater found crack cocaine residues in all 13 participating cities and for all sampling days, with the highest loads reported in Amsterdam and Antwerp. Where data is available, when comparing to study locations outside the European Union, only cities in Switzerland show similar levels of use as the cities in Europe with the highest loads, while all the other location show low levels of MDMA use. General population surveys in many countries showed that MDMA prevalence was declining from peak levels attained in the early to mids. In recent years, however, the picture has remained mixed with no clear trends. Where prevalence is high, this may reflect MDMA no longer being a niche or subcultural drug limited to dance clubs and parties, but now being used by a broader range of young people in mainstream nightlife settings, including bars and house parties. Looking at longer-term trends in wastewater analysis, in most cases the loads increased between , and have fluctuated after this. In , possibly due to the fact that in the majority of countries nightlife was largely closed for long periods, almost half of the cities 24 of 49 reported a decrease with 18 reporting an increase. In , 38 out of 58 cities, reported a decrease. In , 28 out of 62 cities reported an increase and 27 a decrease. Of the 69 cities that have data on MDMA residues in municipal wastewater for and , 42 reported an increase mostly in northern Europe , 11 a stable situation and 16 a decrease mostly in cities in southern and central Europe. Of the 9 cities with data for both and , 9 had higher MDMA loads in than in As for cocaine, and contrary to previous years, in most countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found when comparing large cities to smaller locations. More than three quarters of cities showed higher loads of MDMA in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, reflecting the predominant use of ecstasy in recreational settings. Amphetamine and methamphetamine, two closely related stimulants, are both consumed in Europe, although amphetamine is much more commonly used. Methamphetamine consumption has historically been restricted to Czechia and, more recently, Slovakia, although recent years have seen increases in use in other countries. The loads of amphetamine detected in wastewater varied considerably across study locations, with the highest levels reported in cities in the north and east of Europe. Amphetamine was found at much lower levels in cities in the south of Europe, although the most recent data shows some signs of increase. To examine the data, use the data explorer , also available on this page. Underlying data is available in source data. The observed methamphetamine loads in the other locations were very low to negligible, although most recent data show signals of increases in central European cities. Overall, the data related to amphetamine and methamphetamine from the 11 monitoring campaigns showed no major changes in the general patterns of use observed, although since increases were observed in several cities for both substances in regions where use has traditionally been low to negligible. Of the 65 cities with data on amphetamine residues in municipal wastewater for and , 26 reported an increase, 13 a stable situation and 26 a decrease. Of the 67 cities that have data on methamphetamine residues in municipal wastewater for and , 15 reported an increase, 13 a stable situation and 39 a decrease. In , methamphetamine use was found to be distributed more evenly over the whole week than in previous years, possibly reflecting the use of these drugs being associated with more regular consumption by a cohort of high-risk users. For amphetamine, more than three quarters of cities show higher loads during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays. In , low levels of ketamine residues in municipal wastewater were reported by 49 cities, although with signals of increases. Of the 22 cities that have data on ketamine residues for and , 12 reported an increase, 8 a stable situation and 2 a decrease. The highest mass loads were detected in cities in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Spain. More than three quarters of cities showed higher loads of ketamine in wastewater during the weekend Friday to Monday than during weekdays, reflecting the predominant use of ketamine in recreational settings. Wastewater analysis offers an interesting complementary data source for monitoring the quantities of illicit drugs used at the population level, but it cannot provide information on prevalence and frequency of use, main classes of users and purity of the drugs. Additional challenges arise from uncertainties associated with the behaviour of the selected biomarkers in the sewer, different back-calculation methods and different approaches to estimate the size of the population being tested Castiglioni et al. The caveats in selecting the analytical targets for heroin, for example, make monitoring this drug in wastewater more complicated compared to other substances Been et al. Also, the purity of street products fluctuates unpredictably over time and in different locations. Furthermore, translating the total consumed amounts into the corresponding number of average doses is complicated, as drugs can be taken by different routes and in amounts that vary widely, and purity levels fluctuate Zuccato et al. Efforts are being made to enhance wastewater monitoring approaches. For example, work has been undertaken on overcoming a major source of uncertainty related to estimating the number of people present in a sewer catchment at the time of sample collection. This involved using data from mobile devices to better estimate the dynamic population size for wastewater-based epidemiology Thomas et al. Wastewater-based epidemiology has established itself as an important tool for monitoring illicit drug use and future directions for wastewater research have been explored EMCDDA, First, wastewater analysis has been proposed as a tool to address some of the challenges related to the dynamic new psychoactive substances NPS market. This includes the large number of individual NPS, the relatively low prevalence of use and the fact that many of the users are actually unaware of exactly which substances they are using. A technique has been established to identify NPS that involves the collection and analysis of pooled urine from stand-alone portable urinals from nightclubs, city centres and music festivals, thereby providing timely data on exactly which NPS are currently in use at a particular location Archer et al. The project applied innovative analytical chemical and epidemiological methods and a robust risk-assessment procedure to improve the identification of NPS, to assess risks, and to estimate the extent and patterns of use in specific groups e. Second, in addition to estimating illicit drug use, wastewater-based epidemiology has been successfully applied in recent years to providing detailed information on the use and misuse of alcohol Boogaerts et al. Furthermore, wastewater analysis can potentially provide information on health and illness indicators within a community Kasprzyk-Hordern et al. Third, the potential for wastewater-based epidemiology to be used as an outcome measurement tool, in particular in the evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions that target drug supply e. Close collaboration between the different stakeholders involved, including epidemiologists, wastewater experts and legal authorities, is highly recommended in order to start examining these potential wastewater-based epidemiology applications EMCDDA, High levels of MDMA were recorded during the whole monitoring period in one city in the Netherlands, suggesting continuous discharges of unconsumed MDMA from sources within the wastewater catchment area, indicating drug production was taking place in this region. Fourth, by back-calculating the daily sewer loads of target residues, wastewater analysis can provide total consumption estimates, and specific efforts are now being directed towards finding the best procedures for estimating annual averages. It is envisaged that findings from wastewater analysis can help to further develop work in this area. Finally, new methods such as enantiomeric profiling have been developed to determine if mass loads of drugs in wastewater originated from consumption or from the disposal of unused drugs or production waste. It is now important to assess the possible utility of wastewater analysis to report on drug supply dynamics, including synthetic drug production Emke et al. For example, recent malfunctioning of a small wastewater treatment plant in the Netherlands was caused by direct discharges in the sewage system of chemical waste from a drug production site. Further analysis revealed the actual synthesis process used to manufacture the corresponding drugs. The study confirmed that the chemical waste from the illegal manufacturing of stimulants will result in a specific chemical fingerprint that can be tracked in wastewater and used for forensic purposes. Such profiles can be used to identify drug production or synthesis waste disposal in the wastewater catchment area Emke et al. Wastewater analysis has demonstrated its potential as a useful complement to established monitoring tools in the drugs area. It has some clear advantages over other approaches as it is not subject to response and non-response bias and can better identify the true spectrum of drugs being consumed, as users are often unaware of the actual mix of substances they take. This tool also has the potential to provide timely information in short timeframes on geographical and temporal trends. In order to check the quality and accuracy of data, further comparisons between wastewater analysis and data obtained through other indicators are needed. As a method, wastewater analysis has moved from being an experimental technique to being a new method in the epidemiological toolkit. Its rapid ability to detect new trends can help target public health programmes and policy initiatives at specific groups of people and the different drugs they are using. In addition to the glossary below, see also Frequently-asked questions on wastewater-based epidemiology and drugs. Traces of drugs consumed will end up in the sewer network either unchanged or as a mixture of metabolites. Metabolites, the end products of metabolism, are the substances produced when the body breaks drugs down. Wastewater analysis is based on the fact that we excrete traces in our urine of almost everything we consume, including illicit drugs. The target drug residue is what remains in the wastewater after excretion and is used to quantify the consumption of illicit drugs in the population. Analytical chemists look for urinary biomarkers measurable characteristics to calculate population drug use in wastewater samples, which can be the parent drug i. Enantiomeric profiling is an analytical chemistry technique used to determine if studied drugs in wastewater originate from consumption or direct disposal eq. It is based on the fact that chiral molecules if only one chiral centre is present exist as two enantiomers opposite forms which are non-superimposable mirror images of each other. As the enantiomeric ratio will change after human metabolism, the enantiomeric fraction can be used to determine whether the studied drugs in wastewater originate from consumption. In order to estimate levels of drug use from wastewater, researchers attempt first to identify and quantify drug residues, and then to back-calculate the amount of the illicit drugs used by the population served by the sewage treatment plants Castiglioni et al. This approach involves several steps see figure. Initially, composite samples of untreated wastewater are collected from the sewers in a defined geographical area. The samples are then analysed to determine the concentrations of the target drug residues. A correction factor for each drug is taken into account as part of the calculation. In a last step, the result is divided by the population served by the wastewater treatment plant, which shows the amount of a substance consumed per day per 1 inhabitants. Population estimates can be calculated using different biological parameters, census data, number of house connections, or the design capacity, but the overall variability of different estimates is generally very high. Although primarily used to study trends in illicit drug consumption in the general population, wastewater analysis has also been applied to small communities, including workplaces, schools Zuccato et al. Using this method in small communities can involve ethical risks Prichard et al. In the SCORE group published ethical guidelines for wastewater-based epidemiology and related fields Prichard et al. The objective of these guidelines is to outline the main potential ethical risks for wastewater research and to propose strategies to mitigate those risks. Archer, J. Bade, R. Baz-Lomba, J. Been, F. Bijlsma, L. Boogaerts, T. Castiglioni, S. Causanilles, A. Daughton, C. Emke, E. Hall, W. Kasprzyk-Hordern, B. Kinyua, J. Krizman-Matasic, I. Lai, F. Mardal, M. Mastroianni, N. Prichard, J. Reid, M. Senta, I. Thomaidis, N. Thomas, K. Yang, Z. Zuccato, E. Show source tables. You can download the source data for drugs in wastewater in cities from our our data catalogue or use the links below to directly download the CSV files. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. 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Introduction The analysis of municipal wastewaters for drugs and their metabolic products to estimate community consumption is a developing field, involving scientists working in different research areas, including analytical chemistry, physiology, biochemistry, sewage engineering, spatial epidemiology and statistics, and conventional drug epidemiology. Page last updated: 20 March World view Europe South America Oceania. Complete source data for all wastewater measurments, all cities, all years CSV format Wastewater treatment centres information table CSV format Changes in the mean weekly measurements by targeted substance, from wastewater analyses in selected European cities between and CSV format Aggregated trends in cocaine residues in 7 EU cities, to CSV format.

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