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As we reflect on two decades of researching and writing about unsung communities across Europe, we realize that we had a lot to learn about how to travel. It took courage in the early days of hidden europe to escape the tyranny of too much planning. Over time, we slowed down and came to value journeys in their own right. With the unreliability of the very first cars, motoring was a stop-go process. Bibendum, the remarkable tyre man from Michelin, was always on hand to give advice in the event of breakdown or an enforced overnight stay. This year ETC marks the 75th anniversary of its founding in With two Havila ships already in use, and two more making their debut on the coastal voyage in , Havila Voyages is upping its challenge to the incumbent operator. A fortnight of sun, sea and sand beckons! Two weeks of freedom. But is that holiday really a chance to escape the political and moral dilemmas which occupy our minds for the other fifty weeks of the years? We consider some of the ethical issues around European travel. Once upon a time the timetables of ferries and trains were well coordinated, and quayside transfers from train to ship were the norm. No longer. Rail-sea journeys across Europe are often not so easy as once they were. Few linger, but we decided to stay and see what Storlien has to offer. The extractive industries have led to the development of some of Europe's most distinctive cultural landscapes. But the recent addition of a gold mining site in Romania to the list sparks tensions between conservation and economic interests. The last of the Soviet Union's great ocean liners outlived the Soviet Union. For over half a century, this classic ship was a regular visit to Tilbury. Would you sleep in a former abattoir that had been converted into a hotel? Or a prison? Or an asylum? We look at how hotels cope with history, drawing mainly on a lovely example of a Dutch monastery which has been transformed into a striking hotel. Never has the chance for just wandering come with so low a price tag. The Jadrolinija shipping routes of yesterday saw sailings from Venice to Piraeus with half a dozen stops along the way. It was possible to sail direct from Opatija to Corfu or from Venice to Rijeka. We take a look at inshore shipping down the eastern shores of the Adriatic. It takes in terrain that has helped shape Icelandic culture, memory and identity. Or does it make sense to lay on special services for seasonal visitors? We look at examples from Switzerland and Britain. In hidden europe 66 we explore the Drin Valley in Albania, the Vipava Valley in Slovenia, reflect on sustainable tourism and check out the boats in Port Grimaud. We also celebrate a special anniversary with a an article on fifty years of Interrail. Here in the hills of Iceland, the seasonal transients arrive in June, helping prepare the simple accommodation to welcome summer hikers. Katie Featherstome describes a season at Hrafntinnusker, a remote mountain hut on the hiking trail known as the Laugavegur. Counting heads on beds is too crude a metric to support a shift to more sustainable tourism. Can you name Europe's three capitals of culture for ? All three are the second-largest cities in their respective countries. International visitors to the latter two will surely find it immensely frustrating that there are no cross-border train services to Kaunas and Novi Sad. Allow yourself to be curious! Take time to wander. March marks the 50th anniversary of the launch of Interrail. Paul Scraton explores how the landscapes of the heath reflect land management practices developed over many centuries. Many travel companies these days are keen to promote their green credentials. How much of it is mere tokenism and how far is the travel industry genuinely committed to tackling the climate crisis by promoting behavioural change? We explore the gentle art of greenwashing. Five or six decades ago, Romania had a sense of building the future and many citizens were eager to dance the night away in Venus or just lie on the beach at Saturn. We recall the voucher tourism of yesteryear - an era when sun, sea and socialism made natural partners. Sofia Bezverhaya says she is always glad to cater to those who want to see a more traditional picture of the region. We have a mobile shop, but it only comes once a month. The slopes of the Rigi climb up above Lake Lucerne, though the mountain itself claims no great height. Its summit is at less than 2, metres. But the railway to the top of the Rigi claims special status as Switzerland's first mountain railway. This spring, the Rigi Railway celebrates the th anniversary of its opening in May We suspect that slow travel may just be about to have its moment in the sun. Laurence Mitchell takes us the Bulgarian—Turkish borderlands to discover the tombs of Thracian kings and upstart beach resorts which wait in vain for guests. First stop is Malko Tarnovo, a former mining town tucked away in the forests just north of the border. The Baedeker series of guidebooks showed a remarkable consistency in presentation over many decades from the midth century. But many guides were updated every couple of years, so how far did the content change? The extraordinary sandstone pillars of north-east Bohemia create a mystical landscape; the appeal lies in both its grandeur and its intimacy. When it was founded in , the Finnish commune of Penedo in Brazil was full of idealism and hope. But with tough financial times in the late s and thereafter, this one-time utopian experiment had to make compromises. Today, Penedo is a commercial hub that attracts tourists eager to catch a dose of Finland. Expect fake snow and Santa Claus. We thought that the concept of the air corridor had been relegated to history until it popped up again this past spring, with the plucky English reviving the idea and giving it a new twist. Should we not all sit down and review the cumulative depth of our own carbon footprint? And should travel writers perhaps be taking the lead by showing that most of the leisure flights we all take are simply unnecessary? As winter slipped slowly into spring in , Lenin passed through Berlin on his journey back to Russia from Switzerland. His onward route from Berlin took him by train to Sassnitz, then on by ferry to Trelleborg in Sweden. These days it's still possible to follow the route taken by Lenin, using the occasional direct trains from Berlin to Sweden. For much of its length, the Curonian Spit is about two to three kilometres wide; at points it narrows to just a few hundred metres. The sea is never far away. There is a real sense of being on the very edge of Europe. Yet, for all its remoteness, the landscape is deeply influenced by human intervention. In Victorian Scotland, the public took great interest in technology, and so the detonations at the quarry of Crarae on the west shore of Loch Fyne became something of an attraction. The regular steamer from the Clyde to Inveraray would pause at Crarae so that passengers could witness the spectacle of the hillside crumbling. We had assumed that the practice of diligently recording and publishing the name of visitors had long since died out until last summer we visited Samnaun. This really is one of Europe's most oddball communities. It is tucked away in the hills on the north side of the Inn Valley in Switzerland's Lower Engadine region. This evening, as the prosecco glasses clink and the water salutes cascade, anyone might be forgiven for thinking that Air Berlin had just notched up some great commercial success. What is in fact being marked is the demise of an airline with flight AB from Munich to Berlin being Air Berlin's very last scheduled flight. James' View is stunning. You'd barely credit that the building was once no more than a simple Hebridean dwelling. It has been transformed by owners Marion and Will into a very welcoming holiday home on Barra. It makes a perfect base for exploring the island. There is more to Zermatt than the Matterhorn. If you've eaten too much over the holidays and fancy some exercise, why not join us on a walk around Lake Geneva. Let's focus on the Montreux Riviera, which sweeps softly around the north-east part of the lake. It is densely settled with communities like Vevey, Clarens and Montreux all nudging up against one another. Would you ever consider buying an entire island? This autumn has seen a couple of Scottish islands on the market. Today's Letter from Europe reviews the contents of hidden europe Publication of this new issue of the travel magazine is 15 March Copies are already available for purchase. Tucked away in the hill country of southern Belgium is the town of Redu. On the face of it, Redu is much the same as other towns in the Ardennes region. Except that, in Redu, the printed word is especially cherished and valued. Paul Scraton invites us to join him as he explores Belgium's premier 'book town'. Dive into the streets of Valletta and you'll discover one side of the Maltese capital. Climb up to the city ramparts for a very different view of Valletta. But Victor Paul Borg believes that the only way to understand the military history of Valletta is to venture underground. Join Victor as he explores a subterranean warren under the fortress capital of Malta. Welsh settlers landed on the Patagonian coast in to create Y Wladfa literally 'the colony' in the Chubut Valley. Within little more than a generation, most of the Welsh migrants had moved inland or left South America altogether. But a veneer of faux-Welshness is still evident in the Chubut Valley town of Gaiman and perhaps a touch of genuine Welshness too. Playing the Welsh card, we discover, can be a commercial asset in Patagonia. They all style themselves as 'book towns'. Across Europe and beyond, small towns are discovering the appeal of 'the Hay model' as they jump on the bandwagon set rolling by Richard Booth in Hay-on-Wye. Among the areas covered in the pilot guide is the island of Cabrera, off the south coast of Mallorca. It's hard to say no to pastis. Especially on the island of Bendor, off the south coast of France, where pastis is the preferred drink at almost any time of day. Both communities are celebrated stops on the European spa circuit. They both flourished in Habsburg days and both are nowadays still well known by their erstwhile German names, respectively Karlsbad and Marienbad. The town, which hosts one of the leading Marian shrines in Europe, lies in glorious countryside just north of the Alps. Think of writers who are intimately associated with a particular city: Kafka and Prague, Joyce and Dublin, Svevo and Trieste Pessoa did for Lisbon something which few other leading writers have done for their home city. He wrote a guide for tourists visiting the city. With Pessoa to hand, Iain Bamforth sets out to explore the Portuguese capital. This week marks the 90th anniversary of the opening of the Artek children's camp in the Crimea. Throughout post-Soviet Europe there are thousands of older people who look back with great affection to the summer holidays they enjoyed as children at Artek. The Hurtigruten vessels which ply the Norwegian coast provide essential links to ports along the way. The pure simplicity of the timetable allows travellers to create their own itineraries, confident in the knowledge that another Hurtigruten ship will be along in 24 hours. Readers of hidden europe often ask us about details of the Norwegian coastal voyage. On this page we have gathered together two dozen such questions with our answers. A lot of general information on Hurtigruten is available in brochures. Our focus here is more on the details of life on board. The Macedonian town of Kratovo is by-passed by most travellers exploring the southern Balkans. But guest contributor Chris Deliso took time to discover the town which was once an important mining centre. Join us as we walk over the bridges of Kratovo and find a community which is trying to reinvent itself. Russia's love affair with the French Riviera and the adjacent Ligurian coastal littoral to the east has been one of Europe's defining cultural interactions of the last years. We take at look at how Russian visitors have helped shape Riviera life. The book is populated by small-town characters of various religious persuasions — Orthodox, Catholics, Muslims and Jews. In the wake of the terrible conflicts of the s, Visegrad is now mainly a Serb town and thus Orthodox. Guest contributor Laurence Mitchell introduces us to Visegrad, the small town on the Drina in the east of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The agency that promotes tourism to the German capital is called Visit Berlin. During Visit Berlin is promoting the idea that 9 November is the night when you just must be in Berlin. Just as Notting Hill Festival and Edinburgh Hogmanay have staked their place in the global party circuit, Berlin is using the 25th anniversary of the 'fall of the Wall' to advance its case for inclusion. The Ukrainian railway administration may still be advertising trains to Crimea, but not a lot of Ukrainians will be heading to the region for their summer holidays. Hoteliers in Crimea are having a lean season, but Moscow has plans to ensure that Crimean resorts are not completely empty in Yet this beautiful island is a good place to understand Danish history. Can a town have too much history? That certainly seems the case with the small city of Weimar in the German State of Thuringia. The town packs a few surprises and there is even a little counterculture to offset Schiller and Goethe. We unpack the details that you don't find in the tourist brochures in this special feature on a town that is still very much 'east' Germany - and all the better for that. The decision last year by Thomas Cook to scrap the title was a bitter blow. But, thanks to a new company set up by the team that compiled the timetable in Thomas Cook days, the ERT is back. Snow falls over all the city, covering the cobbles and the pathways. In the gentle stretch of parkland that lines the valley of the Ilm, snow drapes the follies and the ruins. In the middle of Weimar, statues of stern men are laced with light snow. A tricorne for Goethe, an icicle for Schiller. The monastery on the Isola di San Francesco del Deserto is a place apart, an island retreat in the shallow recesses of the northern lagoon well away from the hustle and bustle of Venice. It is an island where blessed solitude is punctuated by the Liturgy of the Hours. Franciscan monks have prayed on San Francesco del Deserto for eight centuries, their chants shaping a soundscape that otherwise is dominated by bird song, the breeze running through avenues of cypresses and the ripple of water. Laurence Mitchell describes the pulse of everyday life in Alhama, a place that still has its fair share of Moorish ghosts. There is no better way to do this than by taking the weekly sailing from Palma di Mallorca to Menorca, along the way passing the island where Hannibal was born and another island where prisoners of war were held captive. In , Jemima Morrell participated in the first ever escorted tour of the Alps organised by Cook. Her diary of that journey is a remarkable piece of writing - one that slices through Victorian formality. The story of what happened to that diary is as intriguing as the journey described within its pages. Cast back years, and Bastille Day came and went without the average Parisian taking much notice. It was not till that 14 July acquired the status of a national holiday. Jemima and her party of fellow travellers from England dutifully followed the Parisian itinerary that had been prepared for them by Mr Thomas Cook. The time is coming when residents of Rome escape the Eternal City. Rome is not a place to stay in summer. Many from Rome head north into the hills of Lazio, where Etruscan, Roman and Renaissance threads intertwine in history and culture. The lakes pull the crowds. There are three in particular, all marking the site of old volcano craters: Bolsena with its two pretty islands , Bracciano and the much smaller Lago di Vico. The latter is just about three kilometres across, and the entire lake is quite hemmed in by the hills. There is a prevailing view in Salzburg that Vienna is halfway to Asia. And that is certainly the perspective with which 19th-century travellers from western Europe approached Vienna. We retrace the itinerary followed by Thomas Cook's clients in as they headed east to Vienna to attend the World Fair hosted that year in the Austrian capital. An image is worth a thousand words. France is represented as a land of soft-focus vineyards while Norway is captured in a fjord. Slovenia is distilled in one island in the middle of a lake, while Scotland is evidently populated by men wearing kilts. We look at how national brands have evolved over two hundred years. By the end of February , Thomas Cook had encircled most of the northern hemisphere. Cook and his party of circumnavigators had sailed from Liverpool in September The travellers discovered iced water, Pullman cars and Sioux warriors in the United States. They found the crossing of the Pacific happily pacific and enjoyed 'a perfect bewilderment' of landscape in Japan. So we travelled west, just as we promised. We saw white horses and chalk downland, slipping through geology to reach a land of gorgeous place names. Brunel's mighty bridge escorted us to another land. The story of Lake Sevan reveals the tensions between economic development and environmental security in modern Armenia. Jamie Maddison travels around the shores of Lake Sevan to discover how the politics of water management play havoc with the lives of those who live and work in the region. Will Verity do the same for Ilfracombe? But Verity's stay in the north Devon port is limited to just twenty years. And who then might take her place by the side of Ilfracombe harbour? Napoleon Bonaparte, perhaps? Would you believe that a major guide book publisher really suggests that the Rhine runs from north to south through Germany? With tight budgets, some publishers are cutting corners and skimping on detail. For the Rough Guide to Germany, that means focusing in on mainstream destinations, removing from new editions those sections of the book which reflect on smaller communities across Germany. Yet it is the latter that capture much that is so appealing in Germany. We take a look at how visa regimes undermine human mobility. Given our interests, you might have thought that we'd have pounced on The Smell of the Continent the moment it was published in The book is a witty and well-researched account of how the English discovered continental Europe in a decades following the Napoleonic Wars. Not quite Europe and not quite Asia, the Princes' Isles in the Sea of Marmara south of Istanbul have long been a place of sanctuary for exiles and minorities. Laurence Mitchell escorts us to the islands where Leon Trotsky lived for some years and wrote his 'History of the Russian Revolution'. Just over five years ago, on a sunny day in mid-April , Victor Yushchenko paid a courtesy visit to the European Commission. Ukraine was in political turmoil and the key protagonists were busy courting the wider European policy community and international public opinion - each hoping to secure some support for their side in the embittered constitutional crisis that then divided their country. It is tempting to scatter superlatives when it comes to Poznan. Put simply, Poznan has a superb showpiece square. In its town hall, which dominates that central square, the city has one of the most magnificent Renaissance buildings in Europe. Poznan is a place we like a lot and one we know well - indeed we spent a long weekend there just last month. Yet, like many central European cities, Poznan struggles with its Jewish past. The stretch of coast north from Boulogne in the direction of Calais is a good place to reflect on England. We took a local bus along the coastal road last month, and it made for a fine ride on a perfectly clear, crisp winter day. Beach communities like Wimereux and Wissant were once popular holiday spots, much favoured by English visitors. The port city of Boulogne has always attracted visitors from across the Channel. Tobias Smolett came and so did Charles Dickens who called the town his 'favourite French watering hole', declaring it to be 'every bit as good as Naples'. Today, the town's ferry terminal is abandoned, but Boulogne remains a popular spot for visitors from Britain and offers a few exotic surprises. Across Europe, former Anglican church buildings have been redeployed to all manner of extraordinary uses: from galleries via museums to night clubs. We trace the spread of Anglican churches throughout the continent. International Women's Day IWD , which is celebrated today in many countries across the world, has been a feature of the European social landscape for more than a century. From the outset, IWD gave focus to a range of initiatives across Europe that pre-dated the designation of a special day. For example, Emmeline Pankhurst's suffragettes had already been very effectively promoting women's rights in England, while Clara Zetkin and her followers had been pursuing a similar agenda in Germany. The Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag and the modern Potsdamer Platz development are Berlin icons, all enduringly popular with those who trade in visual images. And our Berlin wander, weaving around film crews and tripods, set us thinking about the way in which the imperative to capture the scene, coupled with the demands of commerce, intrude on public spaces. Over the recent holidays, a friend and fellow-traveller popped the 'church question'. Is it okay to slip into Mass or Evensong to enjoy the splendours of Venice's Basilica di San Marco or York's magnificent Minster when the principal intent is not worship but a wish to see the buildings' interiors? Or should the visitor more properly attend at times designated for tourists, queue as necessary and pay an admission fee if requested? Well, that was certainly an interesting week for travellers around Europe. Lots of angst for stranded souls. Rich fodder for the British tabloids as brave holidaymakers returned to English ports recounting tales of journeys from hell. Heavens, we never knew that France was really that bad. Celebrity tourism is nothing new. In , Queen Victoria had journeyed to the Hebrides from the Clyde, using the Crinan Canal to avoid the long sea journey around the Kintyre peninsula. In so doing she encouraged thousands of other travellers to follow in her wake - the so-called Royal Route to Oban via the Crinan Canal was suddenly in vogue. The festivalisation of culture penetrates all areas of the arts. No longer is it possible to offer a string of Mozart concerts. Nowadays it has to be a Mozart festival. Slow travel is about making conscious choices, and not letting the anticipation of arrival undermine the pleasure of the journey. By choosing to travel slowly, we reshape our relationship with place and with the communities through which we pass on our journeys. In we launched our 'Manifesto for slow travel'. You can read the full text here. The Slow Food movement is well established, and there are now slow cities. But what about slow travel? Robert Louis Stevenson and Freya Stark both travelled with donkeys. They were attentive to every turn of the road on their journeys through France and Arabia respectively. But us? We pack ourselves like sardines into fragile aluminium tubes and speed through the sky at hundreds of miles per hour. Come now! That is not real travel. Despite a biting north wind and some squally showers of sleet and hail, Helgolanders did what they always do on the evening of Easter Saturday: gather just before dusk for the traditional Osterfeuer Easter fire. Helgoland often still referred to by its erstwhile English name Heligoland is an extraordinary place, an impressive lump of deep red sandstone that juts out of the North Sea. The English poet Coleridge was not at all keen on Malta. And Byron is alleged to have described the Maltese capital, Valletta, as memorable mainly for its 'yells, bells and smells'. Yet in our book the Maltese islands have more going for them than the Romantic poets ever recognised. Forget the concrete jungle of the modern tourist resorts. The experience of driving through the world's longest road tunnel is one to remember. Many of Berlin's prime attractions evoke the darker side of the city's past. The new monument to the murdered Jews of Europe just south of the Brandenburg Gate is the latest addition to Berlin's dark tourism repertoire. Just a short walk away is the Topography of Terror exhibition. For visitors who venture out of Berlin's city centre, the former Nazi concentration camp at Sachsenhausen is a major destination. Back Up Top. Articles tagged: Tourism. Home tourism. Letter from Europe: 12 July Blog post. Magazine article. Mixed mode. Hidden histories. Magazine article Full text online. Capital moments. Letter from Europe: 29 August Letter from Europe: 12 October Letter from Europe: 8 September Rail Europe Inc sold the first passes in North America in We look at how Eurail helped shape perceptions of Europe for overseas visitors and see how the Eurail scheme helped catalyse Europe's Interrail scheme. From Slovenia to Chile, from Malta to Turkey, bee-related tourism is suddenly in vogue. Honeyed travel opportunities aplenty as tourist boards and travellers realise that bees mean business. It was hugely popular with American visitors, becoming a sort of showcase for a mock-mediaeval Germany. Bratwurst and beer aplenty, but not a mention of Germany's Nazi past. It's hard to imagine these days that any guidebook might ever sell , copies each month. But years ago, in the second half of , Michelin was managing just that. We explore how guidebooks fared in the years after the end of the First World War. As Baedeker fell into disfavour among English readers, other companies were quick to fill the gap. In Sweden and France too, seaside resorts are enduringly popular. But whatever happened in England? We look at the rise and fall of the seaside. We scan the departure boards for a few exotica. Train fares are getting cheaper. As retailer Loco2 launches split tickets in the British market, travellers on longer journeys across the continent are discovering that judicious use of an Interrail pass can undercut the cost of a regular return ticket. Interrail may make sense even for just one round trip. But empires fade, and that canal and railway now cross important frontiers. We look at how the canal and railway have fared. The Anglesey Arms by the quayside has long since closed. But this erstwhile port just down the coast from Dublin still has something of the elegance and grace that it had in the heyday of the packet steamers. Join us to discover the Polish village of Wojnowo which was created from nothing almost years ago. A community of devout Russians arrived on foot and settled on the reedy banks of the River Krutynia. Message in a bottle. Late afternoon, the day trippers are leaving Isola dei Pescatori. Come sunset, the island in Lake Maggiore becomes a quieter, gentler place as the hum of motorised vessels on the lake is hushed for the day. Join us on a trip to the Borromean Islands. Letter from Europe: 26 September From the Bodensee in the north to Lago Maggiore in the south, Swiss lakes are blessed with a wide range of scheduled boat services. We take a look at services which ply the waters of Lake Geneva, serving over two dozen ports across the lake. Those innocuous codes on airline baggage tags are the key to the geography of air travel and some have a dash of history too. The city of Lviv, located in the western reaches of Ukraine, is in many respects a classic central European city, a place which has more in common with Wien, Trieste and Budapest than with other cities in the former Soviet Union — of which Lviv was of course a part. We report from a city which has a complex and layered history, something which makes Lviv all the more interesting. Falconry has invariably been associated with a measure of privilege and wealth. So it's no surprise that the French Revolution led to a downturn in falconry. Wider access to modern weapons guns in particular also helped sideline the art of falconry. But, somewhat against the odds perhaps, the ancient traditions of falconry have survived in many European countries. Rudolf Abraham explores a sport with mediaeval origins. Letter from Europe: 29 April The Peaks of the Balkans trail is a long-distance hiking route, in the shape of a figure-of-eight, which takes in some of the finest mountain terrain in northern Albania and adjacent parts of Kosovo and Montenegro. Rudolf Abraham describes how the trail opens up international frontiers in a region where crossing borders was until recently rarely easy. To walk in solitude in the company of stars is indeed something special. It's a chance to attend to the beauty of the heavens. Letter from Europe: 12 January The blue skies of Anatolia merge with the still waters of Lake Egirdir, on the shores of which Said Nursi wrote his landmark commentary on the Koran. Chris Deliso discovers good food and good music in a community in Turkey. The democratisation of travel has made it possible for millions of people to explore Europe at modest cost. But in some premier league tourist destinations, local residents are beginning to see that hosting too many visitors has a downside. Letter from Europe: 27 October Letter from Europe: 23 July Welcome to hidden europe Much travel writing fuels a shallow approach to travel. Fear of missing out FEMO makes travellers roam the globe in haste. There is, we think, a better way of engaging with places and cultures. We prefer to take things mor. The first product from the new Swiss publisher Imaginary Wanderings sets a dauntingly high standard in terms of its look, feel and production values. And the content is equally fine. Guest contributor Paul Scraton heads out from Ljubljana to explore issues of place and memory in landscapes with a troubled history. Echoes from the past still shape the present in the Slovenian hills. Guest contributor Emma Levine, a first-time contributor to hidden europe magazine, invites us to join her in Prizren, Kosovo, where she discovers that the delicate art of filigree crafting still thrives. We take a look at the architectural tradition often known by its German name Backsteingotik. The reprinting of old, out-of copyright train timetables has become quite a craze - and a money-spinner for publishers keen to exploit the nostalgia market. We look at a reprinted timetable and find that the advertisements are a good deal more interesting than the railway schedules. Letter from Europe: 31 December Letter from Europe: 5 December People Places. Letter from Europe: 1 December The Erzgebirge Ore Mountains offer excellent possibilities for hiking, cycling and cross-country skiing. But even less energetic visitors can reach remote communities in the region by local bus and train services. A chance to visit Belarus without a visa, and a tweak to the visa regulations in the Russian port of Murmansk are just two of the latest changes to visa regimes in Europe. It is unlikely that great streams of tourists will be arriving in the mountains of northern Albania anytime soon. But this part of the southern Balkans now benefits from better access roads. Guest contributor Laurence Mitchell reports from two valleys in the hills often known as the Albanian Alps. Some things in Oxford never change. But hidden europe looks beyond the dreaming spires to discover another side of the town. The ruins of the holiday resort of Kupari near Dubrovnik on the Croatian coast are a sobering reminder of an all-too-recent war in Europe. Catch the flavour of this new edition with our train journey from Rome to Sicily, specially adapted from the book for this issue of the magazine. Special spaces. It is one of Europe's most intensive areas of fruit cultivation. Apples, raspberries, cherries and plums aplenty in a region which owes much to early Dutch settlers. Europe beyond Europe. But the South African town took its name from the eponymous Swiss community. Letter from Europe: 13 March Letter from Europe: 1 March Letter from Europe: 18 January Letter from Europe: 2 August Letter from Europe: 9 June Letter from Europe: 30 January Letter from Europe: 21 January Letter from Europe: 14 July Letter from Europe: 28 June Performing Europe. Letter from Europe: 28 February Letter from Europe: 12 November Letter from Europe: 3 June Letter from Europe: 22 May Letter from Europe: 16 March Letter from Europe: 8 March Letter from Europe: 19 February Letter from Europe: 9 January Letter from Europe: 22 April Letter from Europe: 19 October Letter from Europe: 14 March Letter from Europe: 24 March Letter from Europe: 28 January Letter from Europe: 6 November Letter from Europe: 13 August

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. For commercial re-use, please contact journals. Variation in the type of tissue that larvae feed on can produce marked differences in developmental rate and body size, which can compromise predictions of minimum postmortem interval. A series of experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of fat content in the diet on larval growth in Chrysomya megacephala Fabricius Diptera: Calliphoridae , an important forensic blowfly species in China. Bionomical parameters such as body size, development time, mortality, and sex ratio were observed. The results indicated that fat content in the diet has a dramatic effect on the body size and larval development. More dietary fat content was beneficial for development of larvae in first and early second instar. But it was adverse in the later third instar. Significantly, a high-fat diet resulted in increased development rates and the production of undersized larvae and adults. Overall mortality of larvae and pupa was higher when more fat was added to the diet, but sex ratio of adults was not negatively affected. This study highlights that the fat content in the diet should be considered in the entomological research and forensic application when estimating minimum postmortem interval on the basis of larval body size and developmental stage. Keywords: entomology, Chrysomya megacephala , postmortem interval, development. It is common in practical applications of forensic entomology to consult data on the development of flies when estimating the minimum postmortem interval PMI min. Forensic entomologists estimate the minimum time between death and discovery of a corpse mainly in terms of the parameters of body size and developmental stage of blowflies which are found in or on a corpse. Current standard development rate curves of blowflies are produced by extrapolation from analysis of development rate reared on a known single or semisynthetic substrate under controlled environmental conditions. Many varied organs or bodies of animals, especially mammals, have been used in larval growth and succession studies Byrd and Butler ; Grassberger and Reiter , ; Ames and Turner ; Grassberger et al. In some cases, artificial diets were also recommended Mandeville , Daniels et al. Previous experiments on the development of blowfly larvae showed that the components and nutrition of the diet play a key role in larval development. Specifically, the composition of the tissue that the larvae fed on had significant effects on development. An error of almost 2 d could be expected in a PMI min estimate using Calliphora vicina larvae reared on liver compared with other organs, such as brain, heart, kidney, and lung Kaneshrajah and Turner Similar results were obtained in other blowflies, such as Lucilia sericata , Calliphora augur , and Lucilia cuprina Clark et al. As fatty substances are generally used and stored for energy, larvae consuming more fat will be able to direct more energy into growth Day and Wallman b. For this reason, the fat content in diet may affect the growth and development of blowfly and these factors must be accounted for in the entomological research or in estimates of PMI min. Fat tissue is a very important part of the body and an indispensable component in the diet of the necrophagous species, especially the larvae of blowflies. Studies on the effect of nutrient composition and fat content in the diet on larval growth of the blowfly are sparse in the forensic entomology literature. The aim of this study, therefore, was to observe whether the fat content in the diet effects body size and developmental stage of Chrysomya megacephala Fabricius Diptera: Calliphoridae. The blowfly C. Moreover, it was also one of the first saprophagous organisms to arrive and lay eggs on a body after death. Fresh pure lean pork and subcutaneous fat obtained from an abattoir on the day of slaughter from different pigs. The diet for the experiment was a mixture of pure lean pork and subcutaneous fat, including five groups according to the different proportions of fat content. The mixture was prepared by mincing by a liquidizer. The diets were thawed and equilibrated to room temperature before the egg mass was migrated. The strain of C. These flies were inbred for four generations to obtain purebred and an adequate number of flies for the subsequent experiments. Growing cultures were supplied with food consisting of water, sugar, and milk powder. Fresh pork blood was added in the food to promote the development of the ovaries of female adults beginning 3 d after eclosion. Egg masses were collected from the pork liver and eggs were transferred to each diet as outlined above. The diet was sufficient for completing the larval stage according to our pilot experiments and previously published data conducted in three forensic blowfly species Daniels et al. Each diet was placed in a ml beaker diameter, 8. The bottom of each rearing container was covered with a 2-cm-deep layer of sawdust to provide the larvae a favorable place to pupate. Adequate mesh ventilation was provided through the transparent lid. Observations were performed at h intervals and consisted of destructive sampling. A sample of 10 randomly chosen larvae were collected at each time point until larvae began to reach the postfeeding stage. To prevent disturbance of the growing larvae, the time spent searching for larvae in each group was limited to 15 min, as described in Day and Wallman a and Arong et al. In total, 10 dark brown pupae of each group and left wings of 10 adult blowflies were also collected for subsequent measurements. The samples of pupae were collected in the first observation when the pupae turned to be dark brown. The size of each adult was determined, as in other studies Clark et al. The time of larvae wandering and adult emergence was recorded and the number was also counted at h intervals for subsequent statistical analysis of time of developmental stage. All of the dead larvae, pupae, and puparium in the sawdust were collected and recorded to calculate the mortality rate of larvae and pupae. Adult blowfly sex was measured according to the presence or absence of a gap between their eyes. Each treatment of different diet groups was repeated five times. The data were analyzed with the statistical software SPSS One-way analysis of variance was used to consider differences in size of larvae, pupae, and adult blowfly and the duration between different groups. This phenomenon was sustained throughout pupation until eclosion. Greater fat content in the diet resulted in smaller-sized individuals in length. Larvae began to reduce their body length in preparation for pupation after mean maximal length time. The length growth curves of larval samples collected from each different treatment are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. Length growth curves are different between the five treatments. Body size of C. Mean values followed by the same letter are not significantly different within the same stages of development. Increased dietary fat also had a significant effect on larval body weight. The phenomenon was sustained until postfeeding stage and pupae stage. The weight growth curves of larval samples collected from the different diets are shown in Figure 2 and Table 1. Weight growth curves are different between the five treatments. The body length and weight of pupae related to the level of fat content in the diet. The smallest mean length and weight of pupae were found in G8 and the largest mean length and weight of pupae were found in G0. The length of posterior cross vein dm-cu on the left wing of adults between different groups was also affected. The effect of larval developmental time also differed individually in the high-fat-content group. The time to enter the postfeeding stage more widely varied among individuals with the G8 treatment. Larger standard deviation was found in time of third instar and total development time. Time of developmental stage h of C. Total development time includes the duration time of larva and the duration time of pupa. The highest larval mortality occurred on the high-fat-content diet of G8, whereas the lowest larval mortality occurred on the G0 diet control group. The development of necrophagous insects colonizing a corpse can be influenced by many environmental factors. Ordinarily, the ambient temperature of the scene where the body is found would be considered the primary factor Byrd and Butler , Anderson , Grassberger and Reiter , Ireland and Turner , Niederegger et al. Other important factors that have been reported are larval population density Goodbrod and Goff , Saunders and Bee , Saunders et al. As one of the most important biochemical components and an essential nutrient in the diet, lipids can provide crucial energy and assist the organism in coping with environmental variation and the competing demands of growth, survival, and reproduction Ujvari et al. In the complex life cycle of holometabolous insects, the last few days of larval development are characterized by the accumulation of nutrient reserves in the larval body for use during the subsequent developmental stages Ujvari et al. The fat cells carried over from the larval stage, through pupation to adulthood, have been shown to have a nutritional role in the early, nonfeeding stage of adulthood Aguila et al. Apart from being an energy source, lipids have many additional functions such as preventing desiccation and in chemical communication Hulbert et al. Five replicated experimental studies in this study have shown that more dietary fat was very beneficial for development of larvae that were in the first and early second instar. However, fat was an adverse factor in the later third instar. This is supported by the previous study that low levels of dietary fat enhanced blowfly lifespan and high-fat diets had a detrimental impact on blowfly physiology Ujvari et al. High oleic acid diets have also been found to kill fourth-instar larvae mosquitoes Rahuman et al. Taken together, these data indicate that high-fat content in the diet may be an important obstacle for the larval development at the later stages of third instar. Moreover, it is likely to lead to increased development rates and more smaller-sized individuals. The different levels of fat content in the diet not only affected the larval body size but also had a profound effect on the developmental stage of blowfly. This may indicate that larvae would migrate or pupate prematurely rather than slow development if there is no suitable diet to feed on. Therefore, an increased developmental rate can also mislead the forensic practitioner during casework and result in an overestimate of the PMI min Ireland and Turner The level of fat content in the diet has relation with the larval behavioral ecology of C. A small proportion of fat in the diet would not affect the larval development rate. A great deal of fat in the diet would provide insufficient nutrition or would be adverse for third-instar larval development or even result in hypoplasia in individuals, despite the slight benefit seen in the early larval stages. The results of this study suggest that fat content in the diet has a profound effect on larval body size of C. As discussed above, the body size of the larvae reared on a diet containing more fat was dramatically smaller than those reared on a diet of lean pork in the later larval stage of third instar. In summary, there was a significant difference in the body length and weight in those reared on the diet containing a different amount of fat tissues in weight. More fat content in the diet produced undersized postfeeding larval individuals. At later stages, the smaller larvae gave rise to smaller pupae and subsequently smaller adult blowflies. As the body size of fly larvae collected from a corpse is one of the most frequently measured parameters for successfully estimating PMI min , the results may have an important implication in that the smaller-sized larvae may be mistaken for younger individuals by forensic practitioners and result in an underestimation of time since death. However, the nutritional intake of larvae is likely to vary subject to the part of a corpse on which they are feeding as a natural cadaver will have areas of fat and meat that they can choose between Day and Wallman a. To observe the effect of fat content in the diet on larval growth accurately, the mixture of diet in this study was prepared by mincing in a blender so that the larvae could not make choices between fat and meat during the period of feeding. Therefore, although our results show that dietary fat is an important factor, the effects on rates of development would likely be different if they were fed on natural cadavers that allowed self-selection. An inaccurate estimation would be made in terms of the data derived from a single type of animal tissue rather than that on which larvae at a death scene have been feeding as the body size and developmental rate of blowflies may be different due to feeding on different tissues under natural conditions Kaneshrajah and Turner , Clark et al. Our findings have potential implications for forensic entomologists by showing that the fat content should be taken into account more explicitly in laboratory experiments, because raw meat or organs from domestic animals are commonly used in development studies of necrophagous species. The lack of standardized procedures among laboratories often compromises extrapolation of the findings to different forensic scenarios Rabelo et al. Fat tissue is easier for larvae to break down and consume Day and Wallman a. This may be an important cause of the acceleration of larval development in the earlier stages. However, the liquefied fat of the degradation products in feeding may be another important factor influencing the larval activity and ingestion in the later larval stage. Therefore, it seems that the main factor contributing to the differences in body size and developmental rate of the larvae observed in this study are nutrients in the diet, but tissue structure may also play a role. Length and width of puparial cases are helpful to discriminate between sarcophagids and calliphorids according with their own diagnostic features posterior spiracles, in particular though it is not enough for species identification Smith , Mazzanti et al. However, there was a significant difference in body length and weight of pupae and the length of posterior cross veins on the left wing that represented the body size of adults. It was evident that the body size can also be, to some extent, dependent on food availability. There was a significant difference in larval mortality and pupal mortality between the five groups reared on different diets. The larval mortality and pupal mortality of C. High larval and pupal mortality were seen in G5 and G8. However, the sex ratio of adults of C. The results were similar to other calliphorid species, such as C. In conclusion, our results show profound effects of variations in dietary fat content on larvae development rate and body size of C. A high-fat diet was beneficial for development of larvae in first and early second instar but it had an adverse effect in the later third instar. Our results also revealed that larvae feeding on a diet containing more fat would migrate prematurely and reached the wandering phase significantly earlier than those fed on a diet with less fat. This study highlights that the fat content in the diet should be considered. In addition, the position and composition of larvae feeding should be taken into account more explicitly at a death scene when estimating PMI min on the basis of larval body size and developmental stage, especially the case of an obese or dismembered carcass. The results suggest that further experiments are required in order to understand how dietary fat is metabolized and utilized by blowfly larvae. We thank Prof. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. J Insect Sci. Find articles by Xuebo Li. Find articles by Yongqiang Yang. Find articles by Genping Li. Find articles by Hongwei Li. Find articles by Qingshan Wang. Find articles by Lihua Wan. Received Feb 15; Accepted Aug 16; Collection date Open in a new tab. Diet Time of first instar n Time of second instar n Time of third instar n Time of pupae n Total development time n G0 Bionomic parameters of C. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. 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