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Higher Education. In celebration of the Halloween season, we are sharing horror books that are aligned with the themes of the holiday: the sometimes unknown and scary creatures and witches. From classic ghost stories and popular novels that are celebrated today, in literature courses and beyond, to contemporary stories about the monsters that hide in the dark,. During National Learning and Development Month in October, we celebrate the growth of students and the educators who help with their success. Here is a collection of titles with books that inform on different techniques for learning that can help students to grow to their fullest potential. For National Depression Education and Awareness Month in October, we are sharing a collection of titles that educates and informs on depression, including personal stories from those who have experienced depression and topics that range from causes and symptoms of depression to how to develop coping mechanisms to battle depression. For Health Literacy Month in October, we are sharing a list of titles that focus on education about health information and making information about personal and public health easier to understand. For Emotional Wellness Month in October, we are sharing a collection of titles that includes books that can help students with prioritizing emotional health and aid with stress management. The collection also gives insight on the psychology of emotional health and wellness from an academic perspective. Find the full collection of titles here. Get the latest news on all things Higher Education. Learn about our books, authors, teacher events, and more! Friend us on Facebook! Follow us on Twitter! Subscribe on YouTube! Our mission is to foster a universal passion for reading by partnering with authors to help create stories and communicate ideas that inform, entertain, and inspire. Privacy Policy Terms of Use. Toggle navigation Higher Education. Are you still there? Sign out I'm here. Download high-resolution image Look inside. Author Naguib Mahfouz. Introduction by Nadine Gordimer. Knopf Everyman's Library. On sale Mar 27, Pages Add to cart Add to list Exam Copies. See Additional Formats. Share via email. Mahfouz reaches back thousands of years in these novels to bring us tales from his homeland's majestic early history--tales of the Egyptian nobility, and of war, star-crossed love, and the divine rule of the pharaohs. In Khufu's Wisdom , the legendary Fourth Dynasty monarch faces the prospect of the end of his rule and the possibility that his daughter has fallen in love with the man prophesied to be his successor. Rhadopis of Nubia is the unforgettable story of the charismatic young Pharaoh Merenra II and the ravishing courtesan Rhadopis, whose love affair makes them the envy of all Egyptian society. And Thebes at War tells the epic story of Egypt's victory over Asiatic foreigners who had dominated the north of the country for two centuries. Together these novels give us a dazzling tapestry of the marvels and mysteries of ancient Egypt, and remind us again of the remarkable artistry of Naguib Mahfouz. Naguib Mahfouz was born in Cairo in and began writing when he was seventeen. His nearly forty novels and hundreds of short stories range from re-imaginings of ancient myths to subtle commentaries on contemporary Egyptian politics and culture. Of his many works, the most famous is the Cairo Trilogy, consisting of Palace Walk , Palace of Desire , and Sugar Street , which focuses on a Cairo family through three generations, from until In , he was the first writer in Arabic to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. He died in August View titles by Naguib Mahfouz. Additional formats. Author: Naguib Mahfouz. Everyman's Library. Nov 26, Other books in this series. Author: Joan Didion. Apr 01, In a Yellow Wood. Selected Stories and Essays. Author: Cynthia Ozick. Mar 11, The Patrick Melrose Novels. Author: Edward St Aubyn. Feb 11, A Farewell to Arms. Introduction by Malcolm Bradbury. Author: Ernest Hemingway. Jan 14, A Room of One's Own. Introduction by Merve Emre. Author: Virginia Woolf. Jan 07, Introduction by Rachel Khong. Author: Ha Jin. Sep 10, Motherless Brooklyn; The Fortress of Solitude. Introduction by Charles Yu. Author: Jonathan Lethem. Sep 03, Introduction by Eddie S. Glaude Jr. Author: James Baldwin. Jul 09, Lady Chatterley's Lover. Author: D. Apr 02, The House on Mango Street. Introduction by John Phillip Santos. Author: Sandra Cisneros. Feb 20, The White Guard. Introduction by Orlando Figes. Author: Mikhail Bulgakov. Feb 06, Introduction by Jeanette Winterson. Jan 02, The Intuitionist. Introduction by Colin Grant. Author: Colson Whitehead. Nov 28, Hope Against Hope. Introduction by Maria Stepanova. Author: Nadezhda Mandelstam. Nov 14, And Other Clinical Tales. Author: Oliver Sacks. Oct 03, Never Let Me Go. Introduction by David Sexton. Author: Kazuo Ishiguro. Apr 25, The Complete Fiction of Nella Larsen. Passing, Quicksand, and the Stories. Author: Nella Larsen. Apr 18, To the Lighthouse. Jan 03, The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. Introduction by Gregory Pardlo. Author: James Weldon Johnson. Nov 01, Introduction by Ali Smith. Author: Fred Uhlman. Introduction by Daniel Mendelsohn. Author: Mary Renault. Oct 18, Life and Fate. Introduction by Polly Jones. Author: Vasily Grossman. May 24, Introduction by Laura Thompson. Author: Nancy Mitford. Mar 22, The Sun Also Rises. Introduction by Nicholas Gaskill. Introduction by Carolin Duttlinger. Author: Joseph Roth. Feb 01, The Bridge on the Drina. Introduction by Misha Glenny. Author: Ivo Andric. Nov 02, The Famished Road. Introduction by Vanessa Guignery. Author: Ben Okri. Sep 07, The Great Gatsby. Author: F. Scott Fitzgerald. Jan 05, Collected Stories of Lorrie Moore. Introduction by Lauren Groff. Author: Lorrie Moore. Mar 03, A Bend in the River. Introduction by Patrick Marnham. Author: V. Dec 03, Collected Stories of Elizabeth Bowen. Introduction by John Banville. Author: Elizabeth Bowen. Oct 15, Introduction by Paul Giles. Author: Peter Carey. The Underworld U. Trilogy, Volume I. Author: James Ellroy. Jun 04, The L. Trilogy, Volume II. Lucky Per. Introduction by Garth Risk Hallberg. Author: Henrik Pontoppidan. Apr 16, All Quiet on the Western Front. Introduction by Norman Stone. Author: Erich Maria Remarque. Sep 18, Goodbye to All That. Introduction by Miranda Seymour. Author: Robert Graves. Apr 24, Introduction by Joan Acocella. Author: Angela Carter. Apr 10, The Lover, Wartime Notebooks, Practicalities. Introduction by Rachel Kushner. Author: Marguerite Duras. Introduction by Lucy Hughes-Hallett. Author: Daphne du Maurier. Feb 07, The Collected Stories of Mavis Gallant. Introduction by Francine Prose. Author: Mavis Gallant. Aug 09, Introduction by Sarah Churchwell. Author: Iris Murdoch. Apr 05, Go Tell It on the Mountain. Introduction by Edwidge Danticat. Mar 01, Giovanni's Room. The Adventures of Augie March. Introduction by Martin Amis. Author: Saul Bellow. Aug 04, The Book of Evidence, The Sea. Introduction by Adam Phillips. Author: John Banville. Apr 21, Introduction by Ilan Stavans. Aug 12, The Transylvanian Trilogy, Volume I. Author: Miklos Banffy. Jul 02, The Siege of Krishnapur, Troubles. Introduction by John Sutherland. Author: J. Mar 06, Parade's End. Author: Ford Madox Ford. His Dark Materials. Author: Philip Pullman. Dec 06, Doctor Zhivago. Author: Boris Pasternak. Oct 04, Introduction by Ann Pasternak Slater. Author: E. Collected Short Fiction of V. Apr 12, Introduction by John Carey. Author: George Orwell. Foundation, Foundation and Empire, Second Foundation. Introduction by Michael Dirda. Author: Isaac Asimov. The Stories of Ray Bradbury. Introduction by Christopher Buckley. Author: Ray Bradbury. Apr 06, Flashman, Flash for Freedom! Author: George MacDonald Fraser. Feb 02, The African Trilogy. Author: Chinua Achebe. This Side of Paradise. Sep 08, The Best of Frank O'Connor. Introduction by Julian Barnes. Author: Frank O'Connor. Jun 09, The Bascombe Novels. Written and Introduced by Richard Ford. Author: Richard Ford. Apr 14, Introduction by Richard Price. Author: Richard Yates. Jan 06, Introduction by Claire Messud. Author: Irene Nemirovsky. Jan 15, Introduction by Keith Donohue. Author: Flann O'Brien. Jan 08, The Collected Works of Kahlil Gibran. Author: Kahlil Gibran. Oct 23, Love in the Time of Cholera. Oct 05, The Raj Quartet 1. Author: Paul Scott. Jul 03, The Raj Quartet 2. The Best of Wodehouse. An Anthology; Introduction by John Mortimer. Author: P. Jun 19, The Handmaid's Tale. Introduction by Valerie Martin. Author: Margaret Atwood. Oct 17, Collected Nonfiction; Introduction by John Leonard. Collected Stories of Roald Dahl. Introduction by Jeremy Treglown. Author: Roald Dahl. Carried Away. Author: Alice Munro. Sep 26, The Name of the Rose. Introduction by David Lodge. Author: Umberto Eco. Midnight's Children. Author: Salman Rushdie. Random House Trade Paperbacks. Apr 04, Introduction by Alexander McCall Smith. Author: R. Mar 07, Author: Orhan Pamuk. Jul 19, The Garden of the Finzi-Continis. Introduction by Tim Parks. Author: Giorgio Bassani. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated and Introduced by John E. Author: Thomas Mann. May 10, The House of the Spirits. Introduced by Christopher Hitchens. Author: Isabel Allende. Apr 19, Author: Toni Morrison. Jun 08, A Thousand Acres. Author: Jane Smiley. Dec 02, Author: Ian McEwan. Feb 25, My Name Is Red. Aug 27, Of Human Bondage. Author: W. Somerset Maugham. Mar 02, The Diary of a Young Girl. The Definitive Edition. Author: Anne Frank. Feb 03, Other Books by this Author. Autumn Quail. Jun 15, Respected Sir. The Beggar. The Search. Wedding Song. The Mummy Awakens. May 27, Before the Throne. The Mirage. Feb 14, Palace Walk. The Cairo Trilogy, Volume 1. Nov 29, Palace of Desire. The Cairo Trilogy, Volume 2. Sugar Street. The Cairo Trilogy, Volume 3. Khan al-Khalili. Sep 20, Cairo Modern. Dec 01, The Dreams. Jul 14, Morning and Evening Talk. Mar 10, The Seventh Heaven. Dec 05, Thebes at War. Khufu's Wisdom. Rhadopis of Nubia. Mar 08, Voices from the Other World. Ancient Egyptian Tales. Aug 10, Dec 04, The Cairo Trilogy. Oct 16, The Day the Leader Was Killed. Jun 06, Dweller in Truth A Novel. Echoes of an Autobiography. Dec 29, The Harafish. Sep 17, Children of the Alley. Arabian Nights and Days. Sep 15, Adrift on the Nile. Jan 01, The Journey of Ibn Fattouma. Oct 01, Dec 14, The Time and the Place. Jun 18, Midaq Alley. The Beginning and the End. The Thief and the Dogs. Related Articles. Horror Titles for the Halloween Season Literature. Psychology Health. Books for Health Literacy Month Health. History Gender and Sexuality Studies. Keep in touch! Connect with Us! Penguin Random House penguinrandomhouse. Wish List 0.

The Giza Pyramids | Egypt

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July-August The pyramids and the Great Sphinx rise inexplicably from the desert at Giza, relics of a vanished culture. They dwarf the approaching sprawl of modern Cairo, a city of 16 million. The largest pyramid, built for the Pharaoh Khufu around B. To raise it, laborers moved into position six and a half million tons of stone—some in blocks as large as nine tons—with nothing but wood and rope. During the last 4, years, the pyramids have drawn every kind of admiration and interest, ranging in ancient times from religious worship to grave robbery, and, in the modern era, from New-Age claims for healing 'pyramid power' to pseudoscientific searches by 'fantastic archaeologists' seeking hidden chambers or signs of alien visitations to Earth. As feats of engineering or testaments to the decades-long labor of tens of thousands, they have awed even the most sober observers. The question of who labored to build them, and why, has long been part of their fascination. Rooted firmly in the popular imagination is the idea that the pyramids were built by slaves serving a merciless pharaoh. This notion of a vast slave class in Egypt originated in Judeo-Christian tradition and has been popularized by Hollywood productions like Cecil B. De Mille's The Ten Commandments , in which a captive people labor in the scorching sun beneath the whips of pharaoh's overseers. But graffiti from inside the Giza monuments themselves have long suggested something very different. Until recently, however, the fabulous art and gold treasures of pharaohs like Tutankhamen have overshadowed the efforts of scientific archaeologists to understand how human forces—perhaps all levels of Egyptian society—were mobilized to enable the construction of the pyramids. Now, drawing on diverse strands of evidence, from geological history to analysis of living arrangements, bread-making technology, and animal remains, Egyptologist Mark Lehner, an associate of Harvard's Semitic Museum, is beginning to fashion an answer. He has found the city of the pyramid builders. They were not slaves. Young Lehner, a minister's son from North Dakota, hoped to discover if that was true. But the more time he spent actually studying the Sphinx, the more he became convinced that the quest was misguided, and he exchanged its fantasies for a life grounded in archaeological study of the Giza plateau and its monuments. Actually, he became, in the words of one employer, an 'archaeological bum' who soon found work all over Egypt with German, French, Egyptian, British, and American expeditions. Lehner discovered he had a knack for drafting, and got his first lessons in mapping and technical drawing from a German expert. His first big break came in , when the Stanford Research Institute conducted a remote sensing project at the Sphinx and the pyramids— a search for cavities using non-invasive technologies. The Sphinx is carved directly from the sedimentary rock at Giza, and sits below the surface of the surrounding plateau. Lehner was put in charge of a group of men cleaning out the U-shaped, cut-rock ditch that surrounds the monument, so that the sensing equipment could be brought in. In order to plot the locations of any anomalies, the largest existing surface maps of the Sphinx—about the length of an index finger—were enlarged and found to be extremely inaccurate. By then a seasoned mapper, Lehner asked the director of the American Research Center in Egypt ARCE, a consortium of institutions including museums and universities such as Harvard if they would sponsor his effort to map the Sphinx. But Lehner, despite his experience in the field, didn't have a Ph. Running his own 'dig' appeared to be out of the question until ARCE assistant director James Allen, an Egyptologist from the University of Chicago, essentially adopted Lehner professionally, took him under the wing of his own Ph. The German Archaeological Institute loaned photogrammetric equipment, the sort used by highway departments for taking highly accurate stereoscopic photographs from the air, and Lehner soon produced the first scale drawings of the Sphinx, which are now on display at the Semitic Museum. During the mapping, Lehner's close scrutiny of the Sphinx's worn and patched surface led him to wonder what archaeological secrets it might divulge. To better understand the differential weathering in the natural layers of rock from which the Sphinx is cut, Lehner initially consulted a geologist with expertise in stone conservation. The layers in the lower slope of the plateau, where the Sphinx lies, tend to alternate between soft and hard rock. The softer layers of rock were deposited during geological eras when the area was a backwater lagoon protected by a coastal reef; they are highly vulnerable to erosion. Aigner pointed out to Lehner that the 'hard-soft' sequence of layers in this part of the plateau would have made it easy for ancient stonecutters to extract blocks of stone for building. His analysis revealed that the stones used to build the temples in front of the Sphinx had been quarried from the ditch that surrounds it on three sides. Many of these huge blocks, some of them weighing in at hundreds of tons, are so big that they have two or three different geological layers running through them, and they are loaded with forminifera. Detailed logs of the fossils—gastropods, bivalves, sponges, and corals—in each block and layer allowed Lehner and Aigner to actually trace the stones back to the quarry. Lehner had often imagined what Khufu's architect must have envisioned when he looked down from the Maadi formation knoll high above the southeast slope of the plateau and planned the very first pyramid: quarries, a port for bringing in exotic materials like granite and gypsum mortar, a place for the workers to live, provisions for their food, a delivery route from the port to the construction sites. The ancient Egyptians, having already quarried materials for other pyramids for generations, 'probably were good geologists in their own right,' says Lehner. They knew how to line up all three of the massive examples at Giza precisely on the strike of the plateau's slope if you can walk around a hill without going either up or down the slope, you are on the strike. In consequence, all the pyramids—which align on their southeast corners—begin at nearly the same elevation. Most modern scholars think they were built with ramps: the crumbling stone chips from the Mokattam formation quarries were close by and may well have provided the secondary material for the ramps. Yet almost nothing of the infrastructure needed to build a pyramid, with the exception of the quarries, had ever been located. Lehner went back to the ARCE. Why not map the whole plateau, he asked, to see what the land itself could tell about how ancient Egyptian society organized itself around the task of large-scale pyramid building? Studying the geology of an archaeological site is standard practice today, but it had barely been done for Giza, Lehner says, because 'Egyptology grew up in the study of inscriptions. Egyptology grew up largely as a philological and art historical discipline. Archaeology as a standard practice was late to come to Egypt. Over several seasons, Lehner surveyed the plateau to an accuracy of within a millimeter, and began to see with greater certainty how the pyramid builders had arranged themselves across the landscape. An ancient wadi—a desert streambed that flows with water only during the occasional downpour—would have made a perfect harbor, he surmised. The locations of the stone quarries, down the slope from the pyramids themselves, were known, and he thought he knew where a city of pyramid builders might fit into this pattern. What began to interest Lehner more than the question of how the Egyptians built the pyramids was, he says, 'how the pyramids built Egypt. Influenced by Cambridge University's Barry Kemp, who wrote Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization, Lehner came to believe that the colossal marshaling of resources required to build the three pyramids at Giza—which dwarf all other pyramids before or since—must have shaped the civilization itself. By now, Lehner was in his early thirties and realized that continuing his career hinged on getting a Ph. From to , he suspended fieldwork to study at Yale under William Kelly Simpson. In his final year, with an offer of funding for what, he says, 'had been jelling in my mind' for some time, he designed his 'dream project': to find and excavate the settlement of workers who had built the pyramids. His studies had given him an idea of what he should be looking for—a city of about 20, people, on a scale with the earliest major urban centers of Mesopotamia, such as Ur and Uruk. In other words, he was looking for one of the most important cities of the third millennium B. Lehner let the geology of the plateau guide his search. Guessing at the location of the harbor, he surmised where the delivery route to the pyramids must have run. Logically, the settlement for workers should be to the south-southeast, he thought, and in fact, at precisely that location, at the mouth of the wadi that divides the plateau, a towering stone wall, called in Arabic 'the wall of the crow,' loomed above the sand. In Lehner's home state of North Dakota, he says, the ancient masonry would have drawn attention and eventually been designated a national monument. But in Egypt, with its hieroglyphics, 'gold bowls, and mummies,' the wall was virtually ignored. But not completely. Harvard professor of Egyptology George Reisner, an early promoter of stratigraphic digging in Egypt, had noted the massive stone blocks in this wall almost in passing in the early twentieth century; he even stated that there was probably a 'pyramid city' beyond it. But Lehner thinks that even the methodical Reisner, who unearthed much of the extraordinary Egyptian collection at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts, was burdened by the magnitude of material coming out of the excavations he had undertaken. The manner of the discovery of the tomb of Queen Hetepheres is a perfect illustration. Reisner was actually in the United States when his photographer, setting up the legs of his tripod, inadvertently punched through the desert sand into a buried shaft leading to a hidden chamber filled with grave goods. The contents of the chamber had been disassembled in antiquity, and Reisner painstakingly reconstructed them: a golden chair, a golden bed with a headrest—furniture from the boudoir of the queen. Lehner found himself facing a different kind of obstacle altogether. Now that he had his Ph. He had accepted a tenure-track position at the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, just when a massive modern sewage project for Greater Cairo had begun to expose the very area where Lehner planned to search for his ancient city. The rapid pace of encroaching development kept him and his crew 'working like firemen,' he says, but led to some important discoveries, including the oldest bakery ever found in Egypt—right in the area where the workers' city should be. A backhoe narrowly missed one of two large mixing vats along the bakery's back wall. Inside, Lehner and his team found a cache of bread pots, easily recognizable from tomb scenes that document the bread-making process. Analysis of the plant remains at the site by paleobotanist Wilma Wetterstrom, an associate in botany in the Harvard University Herbaria, showed that Egyptian bakers used barley and emmer wheat for their bread. Emmer has very little of the gluten that makes modern bread 'spongy and gives it a nice crust,' says Lehner, so it is grown today only in experimental agricultural stations. For the most part, the bakeries duplicate, many times over, the same process by which bread was made in any Egyptian household of the time. Egyptologists might be mistaken, says Lehner, to think of pyramid building as analogous to a s WPA project. That would take another 1, years to develop. Instead, he says, the bakeries—and by extension, probably these 'first skyscrapers'—'were built by replicating a household mode of production. Lehner says the Egyptians appear to have been reaching, even at this early phase in the process of state formation, for some economies of scale. An adjacent chamber turned out to be a hypostyle, or pillared hall, the oldest ever discovered in Egypt, filled with low benches. Speculation about how it was used suggested a dining hall, but its likely purpose remained a mystery for several years. Lehner, in the meantime, gave up his professorship at Chicago to dedicate himself to the excavation of the pyramid city. In October , with funding from philanthropists Ann Lurie, Peter Norton, David Koch, and others, he launched a 'millennium project' to uncover the pyramid city through a consolidated effort of excavating eight months a year for each of the subsequent three years. Lehner believes the city was intentionally razed and erosion then swept away the rubble before the sand blew in. Today, all across the site, the ruins stand only ankle to waist high. Lehner brought in trucks and front-end loaders to remove the overburden of sand that had preserved the site. His international team of 30 archaeologists has excavated 10 percent—or 5, square meters—intensively, a huge undertaking when using modern stratigraphic standards. With more than workers in total, they have amassed the largest collection of material culture from any dig anywhere in Egypt. They have found not one town, but two, side by side. The first is laid out in an organic fashion, as though it grew slowly over time. Lehner speculates that this was the settlement for permanent workers. The other town, laid out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets, on a formal, grid-like system, is bounded to the northwest by the great wall that both Lehner, and Reisner before him, had noted. This 'wall of the crow' turned out to be massive indeed, 30 feet high, with a gateway soaring to 21 feet, one of the largest in the ancient world. The main street leading through the complex is hard-packed limestone, paved with mud, with a gravel-lined drain running down the center—engineered, says Lehner, 'almost like a modern street. And they have found a royal storehouse with circular grain bins just like those depicted in De Mille's The Ten Commandments. But there was something missing. There were not enough houses for all the people. Generations of scholars have painstakingly calculated how many laborers would have been needed to quarry, transport, and position the stones of the great pyramids. Estimates have ranged widely—from the , cited by Herodotus to just the few thousand posited by recent assessments that allow for decades of construction time. Yet Lehner and his team were not finding enough houses to accommodate even the low-end estimates. His graduate studies had taught him how other scholars of Middle Eastern settlement patterns had analyzed sites in order to come up with estimates of population size. Lehner was approaching the problem from the opposite perspective. He had a sense of how many people were needed to build a pyramid, and so could infer the size of the city he would find. But there were too few dwellings. The city seemed a ghost town. Everywhere, Lehner and his team turned up institutional-looking buildings. One was used for working copper—the hardest metal known to the ancient Egyptians, and critical for quarrying and dressing stones. On the floor of another, the excavators found what at first looked like ears of wheat, suggesting another bakery. But these turned out to be fish gills. The site was littered with them, and with fish fins and cranial parts; it turned out to be a place for processing or consuming fish. For a city with few residents, someone seemed to be eating a lot of loaves and fishes. Because there were just 40 galleries in four large blocks in the entire area, Lehner was sufficiently disturbed that he called in his friend Barry Kemp, the world's foremost authority on ancient Egyptian urbanism, to have a look. In fact, Kemp believed and Lehner agreed that each gallery included the elements of a typical Egyptian house—a pillared, more public area, a domicile, and a rear cooking area—stretched out and replicated on a massive scale. The surprises were just beginning. Faunal analyst Richard Redding, of the University of Michigan Museum of Natural History, identified tremendous quantities of cattle, sheep, and goat bone, 'enough to feed several thousand people, even if they ate meat every day,' Lehner adds. Redding, who has worked at archaeological sites all over the Middle East, 'was astounded by the amount of cattle bone he was finding,' says Lehner. He could identify much of it as 'young, under two years of age, and it tended to be male. Redding and Wilma Wetterstrom had worked at another site in Egypt where cattle appeared to have been raised on a kind of estate. Wetterstrom had found tremendous quantities of clover plant remains that had been eaten by cattle, yet Redding 'had found very little cattle bone,' Lehner notes. At Giza, the amount of cattle bone that Redding found suggested that the city site uncovered by Lehner and his team was 'downtown Egypt,' and that farms and ranches along the frontier could have been feeding the pyramid builders at the society's core. Redding's faunal evidence dealt a serious blow to the Hollywood version of pyramid building, with Charlton Heston as Moses intoning, 'Pharaoh, let my people go! Harvard's George Reisner found workers' graffiti early in the twentieth century that revealed that the pyramid builders were organized into labor units with names like 'Friends of Khufu' or 'Drunkards of Menkaure. We do know, Lehner says, that service in these temples was rendered by a special class of people on a rotating basis determined by those five divisions. Many Egyptologists therefore subscribe to the hypothesis that the pyramids were also built by a rotating labor force in a modular, team-based kind of organization. If not slaves, then who were these workers? Lehner's friend Zahi Hawass, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, who has been excavating a 'workers' cemetery' just above Lehner's city on the plateau, sees forensic evidence in the remains of those buried there that pyramid building was hazardous business. Why would anyone choose to perform such hard labor? The answer, says Lehner, lies in understanding obligatory labor in the premodern world. Obligatory labor ranges from slavery all the way to, say, the Amish, where you have elders and a strong sense of community obligations, and a barn raising is a religious event and a feasting event. If you are a young man in a traditional setting like that, you may not have a choice. Lehner currently thinks Egyptian society was organized somewhat like a feudal system, in which almost everyone owed service to a lord. The Egyptians called this 'bak. Slaves or not, as the last season of his dig began, Lehner still did not know where all the workers slept. With his household model in mind, he had been looking for large 'manor houses' where lords could board their laborers for the pharoah. Instead, he had found whole blocks, meters long, of 'precocious, sleek, modern-looking nondomestic galleries, albeit with elements of a typical Egyptian home. If the next few years of documentation, publication, and peer review bear him out, Lehner's findings will suggest that the ancient Egyptians were even more advanced in their social organization at this period than previously supposed. Perhaps the Old Kingdom's pharaohs did indeed preside over something more like a nation than a fiefdom. What was arguably humanity's first great civilization may have been even greater, at an earlier date, than we have ever supposed. The latest article by author Jonathan Shaw '89, explains how new plant technologies could simultaneously feed the planet at peak population and save the environment in a new Green Revolution. The Crimson outlasts the Crusaders. Next up: Princeton. The fiscal report details narrowing margins, but stronger endowment returns. Historian Alexander Keyssar on why the unpopular institution has prevailed. Right Now. New research on how the brain uses sounds to form words and create meaning. The surreal, artistic cartography of Darren Sears. Features Who Built the Pyramids? Not slaves. Archaeologist Mark Lehner, digging deeper, discovers a city of privileged workers. Photogrammetric elevations by Mark Lehner. On the lower portions, restoration masonry predominates. Lehner's conjectural drawing of the Giza plateau as it might have appeared near the end of Khufu's reign the two later pyramids and the Sphinx, at center, are ghosted. Though later digs changed his views about certain specifics, this vision of Egyptian organization across the landscape remains remarkably accurate. Map by Mark Lehner. Lehner maps a site Photographs by John Broughton. Lehner works fast to document features briefly exposed by modern construction projects. Photographs by John Broughton. A workman pulls an intact breadpot, or bedja, from an ancient compartment built into a wall. Bedja came in three standard sizes; this is an example of the largest. Photographs by Mark Lehner. Archaeologist Fiona Baker provides a sense of scale at a royal storehouse—filled with circular grain bins—still in the process of being excavated. Photograph by Mark Lehner. Figures from the Fifth Dynasty tomb found at Saqqara of an official named Ty illustrate scenes in a bakery. First the dough is mixed in vats. Then the lids are stacked over an open hearth. The dough is placed in the pots, covered with the lids, and baked in hot coals. After cooling, the bread is removed. Lehner and his team used the scenes to create a working, modern reconstruction of an ancient Egyptian bakery complex. This settlement appears to have grown organically over time, and Lehner speculates that it housed permanent workers. Beyond the tents lie the galleries believed to have housed a rotating labor force of several thousand. Lehner and Dr. Zahi Hawass left have worked together since Below: Ashraf Abd al-Aziz, sitting where an overseer might have lived, excavated this gallery, where workers and team members demonstrate that more than 50 people could have slept on this once-pillared porch. Photograph by Ronald Dunlap. Ashraf Abd al-Aziz, sitting where an overseer might have lived, excavated this gallery, where workers and team members demonstrate that more than 50 people could have slept on this once-pillared porch. Read more articles by Jonathan Shaw. Sub topics. Social Sciences. You might also like. Most popular. The End of the Ivy League? College sports are changing. Will Harvard athletics? More to explore.

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