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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. The primary objective of the present study was to evaluate the frequency of positive tests for alcohol and drugs during roadside testing or after road accidents among drivers in the Brittany region of France. Twelve thousand four hundred and ninety-seven drivers males: With the exception of heroin, the currently recommended threshold values appear to be appropriate for road injuries prevention with regard to the concentrations observed in offenders. The risk of accident increases rapidly and exponentially with the blood alcohol concentration - even at low doses Taylor and Rehm, Although drink-driving campaigns are frequent and prominent, the general public is less aware of the impact of driving under the influence of drugs DUID on fatal road crashes. The consequences of DUID are more difficult to identify than those of DUIA - particularly because of the difficulty in i confirming blood screening results for the drug substance using high-performance equipment i. Furthermore, the risk of accident varies according to the type of drug and whether or not other psychoactive substances are used concomitantly World Health Organization, Data from the USA show that in ; Like almost a hundred countries around the world, France has introduced a per se legislation that sets a maximum tolerated blood alcohol concentration for driving 0. In the field of narcotics, the French Highway Code punishes driving under the influence of narcotics as soon as a test proves this i. According to French legislation, the threshold blood concentration for a positive test is 0. Assays for these psychoactive substances are requested by the traffic police during random roadside testing or after a crash has occurred. The primary objective of the present study was evaluate the frequency of positive tests for alcohol and drugs during roadside testing or after road accidents among drivers in the Brittany region of France between and The secondary objective was to describe the blood concentrations of substances found during these tests, in order to provide a scientific basis for the establishment or modification of legislative thresholds for road injuries prevention. In the last two cases, blood samples were taken after positive oral fluid test or alcohol tester. Since the proportion of each of these three origins is unknown, we pooled the results together. Although morphine has been assayed in the laboratory, there is still uncertainty as to the source of this substance; morphine can come either from medical care morphine or codeine or from narcotics. In order to be sure of the narcotic intake, we chose to keep only 6-MAM in this study. The limits of quantification LOQ for the different analyses are shown in Table 3. Positive tests for psychoactive substances recorded between and We analyzed i the dataset as a whole, ii each substance class, and iii samples that were positive for two or more substances. All analyses were performed using SAS software version 9. Quantitative variables age and plasma concentration were described as the mean, median, standard deviation SD , range and interquartile range IQR , and qualitative variables sex, assay request, assay positivity, multiple substance abuse were described as the number percentage. The general characteristics of the tested drivers and the requests for alcohol and drug tests are summarized in Table 1. The age of the tested individuals ranged from 15 to 94, with a median of 29 and an IQR of 23 to Over this 9-year period, most of the tested subjects fell into the 15—24 and 25—34 age groups corresponding respectively to Characteristics of the 12, motor vehicle drivers and 25, drug test requests recorded between and Characteristics of the population testing positive for one or more substances during roadside sampling. The percentages in brackets refer to the proportion for each substance. As in the study population as a whole, the great majority of the positive assays However, the positivity rates for the two sexes were similar: The age profile varied with the substance detected. Most of the amphetaminics and cannabis users were aged between 15 and 24 Over the age of 55, almost all of the positive results concerned alcohol consumption Table 2. With regard to alcohol, Taken as a whole, these results emphasize that the test requests matched the user profiles. The highest positive test rates were observed for alcohol and cannabis With regard to alcohol, almost half the individuals The median concentration of THC attesting to driving under the influence of cannabis was 2. The positive test rate for cocaine was Similarly, the MDMA and amphetamine varied greatly from one driver to another, with median values of Lastly, opiates were the least frequently sought-after drug The blood 6-MAM concentrations were also very low, with a median value of 0. Only 8. The abuse of multiple psychoactive substances Table 4 appeared to be frequent, although the pattern varied according to the type of product consumed. Overall, 10, of the 12, drivers Multiple substance abuse was observed among Of the 10, individuals who were positive for at least one substance, Only six individuals were positive for four substances in the same blood sample Table 4. Details of the combinations of substances detected in individuals with two or three positive tests for the same blood sample are presented in the Supplementary Data. Multiple substance abuse among our population of drivers between and To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first of this magnitude to have explored the patterns of psychoactive substance consumption including multiple substance abuse among drivers in France, the consumption profiles, and the blood concentrations. The great majority of the blood tests assessed in the present study In the literature, male sex is associated with more time spent driving, a greater frequency of speeding violations, and greater alcohol consumption relative to females Norris et al. Along with this overall male predominance, it is noteworthy that the positivity rates for a given substance were similar for men and women. We did not observe an association between age and the blood concentration of narcotics cannabis, cocaine, opiates and amphetaminics. In the literature, similar results have been observed in Sweden, where the highest roadside BACs were found in the 40 to 55 age class among both men and women Jones and Holmgren, These results might be explained by i changes in ethanol metabolism with advancing age because activity of the enzymes involved, such as alcohol and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and cytochrome P 2E1, diminish with age Meier, and ii an increase in alcohol consumption among older adults observed in recent decades Calvo et al. Our results were in line with these data, with a high positivity rate for alcohol In France, the maximum authorized BAC is 0. A BAC above 0. In the present study, the BACs of most of the 4, alcohol-positive drivers far exceeded the legal threshold, with an average of 1. Hence, In Sweden, an observational study of 32, drivers gave similar results, with an average BAC of 1. In our study, the high BACs undoubtedly corresponded to an impaired ability to control the vehicle. The most frequently detected narcotic in our study was THC, with a positivity rate of The consumers were predominant young males, as previously reported in France Beck et al. The highest proportion of male adolescents having experimented with cannabis was observed in the Brittany region. Splika et al. We measured a mean blood THC concentration of 4. In a Swedish study of drivers who had used cannabis, the mean concentration was 2. From an analytical point of view, Jones et al. In France, the value of 0. According to the literature data, the prevalence of heroin experimentation among 18—64 year olds in France is low, with an estimated value of 1. It is therefore not surprising that only 86 of the drivers in our study were positive for 6-MAM. Our results showed that Therefore, the majority of heroin-using drivers would not have been convicted, according to the current legislation. With regard to cocaine, the literature data show a fourfold increase in consumption in France over two decades from 1. Our results corroborate Rooney et al. Although epidemiological studies tend to show an increase in methamphetamine seizures in Europe over recent years, these substances are infrequently used in France; this might explain our results European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, According to Beck et al. Beck et al. Although the literature findings are somewhat contradictory, there does not appear to be a dose—effect relationship for impaired driving performance following amphetaminic consumption. Gustavsen et al. Per se legislation therefore appears to be relevant. In view of our results for the median blood concentrations of MDMA and amphetamine In the context of impairment-type legislation, one can question the relevance of regulatory thresholds for narcotic drugs. The literature data on impaired driving skills under the influence of narcotics vary considerably from one country to another Kuypers et al. Our results highlighted frequent multiple substance abuse in the Brittany region; this is likely to accentuate an impairment of driving skills and thus increase the risk of road injuries Dussault et al. A repressive approach based on threshold concentrations does not generally take multiple substance abuse into account. Although Canada has built an unusual legislative framework for multiple substance abuse Government of Canada D of J. Impaired Driving Laws, , this approach is primarily limited by i strong inter-individual variations in impaired driving performance, and ii the absence of data on the multiple combination patterns found in practice Supplementary Data. However in this study, we found drug concentrations well above the thresholds considered as causing an alteration in driving ability. In this context, our present results suggest that there would be no conviction difference between per se legislation on one hand and impairment-type legislation based on a threshold set apart from 6-MAM on the other. Firstly, the number of BAC requests was probably underestimated, since a blood alcohol test is only requested if it is impossible to obtain a valid test result in expired air or if the driver cannot or will not blow into the test device. Given that these tests are targeted, ethanol was not the most frequently requested analyte. However, it was associated with a high positivity rate Secondly, we decided to analyse tests for 6-MAM a specific heroine metabolite and not tests for morphine a non-specific heroine metabolite because of the difficulty of discriminating between opioid misuse on one hand and the medical use of morphine on the other Maas et al. Also, we have chosen not to include cocaine tests in view of the very low number of positive cases found. Since this substance is very rapidly metabolized to benzoylecgonine, we think it is more relevant to keep only the positive tests for this metabolite. This includes the risk of missing cases with high cocaine and low benzoylecgonine. Thirdly, our research was dependent on test requests by law enforcement officers; multiple substance abuse may therefore have been underestimated. Furthermore, a study of French and Belgian drivers showed that many new psychoactive substances are found in combination with other commonly abused drugs. Lastly, other high-risk products such as fentanyl, benzodiazepines and related products are also frequently consumed by drivers. Although this consumption increases the risk of road injuries, these substances are not prohibited by the French Highway Code; hence, the corresponding tests are very rarely requested by the police Kriikku et al. Levels of multiple substance abuse in Brittany are high. Our results also show that the thresholds set out in the current legislation are appropriate with the exception of that for heroin. As the threshold concentrations set under impairment-type legislation i vary widely from one country to another, and ii rarely take the issue of multiple substance abuse into account, an impairment-based approach does not necessarily appear to be relevant to road injury prevention. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. All authors contributed significantly, and all authors agree with the content of the manuscript. Alain Baert: Final approval of manuscript. Renaud Bouvet: Final approval of manuscript. Isabelle Morel: Conceptualization, Final approval of manuscript. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Prev Med Rep. Find articles by Adeline Degremont. Find articles by Alain Baert. Find articles by Renaud Bouvet. Find articles by Isabelle Morel. Find articles by Thomas Gicquel. Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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Buy MDMA pills online in Rennes

Activities by an organized crime group involving the illegal entry, transit or residence of migrants for a financial or material benefit. The illicit trade and possession of species covered by CITES convention, and other species protected under national law. The poaching, illicit trade in and possession of species covered by CITES and other species protected by national law. Includes IUU fishing. The illicit extraction, smuggling, mingling, bunkering or mining of natural resources and the illicit trade of such commodities. The production, distribution and sale of heroin. Consumption of the drug is considered in determining the reach of the criminal market. The production, distribution and sale of cocaine and its derivatives. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market. The illicit cultivation, distribution and sale of cannabis oil, resin, herb or leaves. Consumption is used to determine the market's reach. The production, distribution and sale of synthetic drugs. Clearly defined organized crime groups that usually have a known name, defined leadership, territorial control and identifiable membership. Loose networks of criminal associates engaging in criminal activities who fail to meet the defining characteristics of mafia-style groups. Includes foreign nationals and diaspora groups. The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities. A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime. The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities. Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs. Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime. France is a destination country for human trafficking, with victims especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation, forced labour, forced begging and slavery. Victims primarily are women and girls from Eastern Europe, East and West Africa and some Asian countries trafficked into sexual exploitation, as well as men, women and children forced into domestic servitude and other forms of forced labour. Human trafficking in France is generally also associated with both physical and psychological violence, as well as unlawful confinement. As a result of the COVID pandemic, there have been cases of trafficked individuals taking on dangerous and degrading work to obtain cash during the lockdowns. France is a key transit and destination country for human smuggling. Smuggling activities have increased in northern France, particularly in the port city of Ouistreham in Normandy, since the closure of the migrant camps in Calais. Smuggling networks also provide individuals with fake medical certificates and forged documents. Furthermore, there is an overlap between human smuggling, drug trafficking, sex trafficking and weapons trafficking. Since the end of , attempts at irregular migration from Africa, the Middle East and Southern Asia across the English Channel have multiplied due to police restraint aimed at preventing migrant camps from emerging near Calais. There is a steady flow of illicit weapons into and within France, primarily originating from Eastern Europe and the US. Targeted weapon theft contributes to the bulk of illicit weapons in the market, which are mainly bought by actors involved in organized crime, especially drug trafficking. Firearms are also sometimes exchanged for drugs. In , France experienced the largest number of weapon thefts across the EU, in the form of both opportunistic and targeted theft. France continues to experience the worrying trend of weapons entering the country in increasing numbers, especially from the Balkans. Intelligence services highlight that weapons used during the two world wars, as well as weapons originating from the Balkan region, are often utilized to fuel criminal networks. Additionally, access to war weapons, such as AKs, enabled terrorist groups to attack civilians in France and also fuelled violence in suburbs where young people have easy access to arms. In mainland France, weapons are sold on both the dark web and the clearnet. There is little evidence to suggest that a criminal market for flora exists in mainland France. However, imports of illicit African timber by French firms constitute the risk of flora-related crimes given the prevalence of illicit activity in the supply chain. France has also been accused of not doing enough to enforce EU timber regulations. Additionally, French Guiana has seen an increase in logging in early as illegal miners have taken advantage of the COVID crisis to engage in illegal clearances. In regard to fauna crimes, hundreds of protected species are seized in France every year. The country, and specifically Charles de Gaulle Airport, is considered a major transit and destination hub for the bushmeat market, as there are many direct flights between France and Africa and Asia. In addition to bushmeat, live wild animals are also trafficked into France. Moreover, the country is a major importer of tigers and is among the five largest importers of reptile skins worldwide. Glass eel trafficking has been flagged as an issue involving Asian nationals. Groups involved in fauna trafficking use bribery and corruption to facilitate trans-shipment. In terms of non-renewable resource crimes, France is an important destination country for the criminal market, particularly illegal gold from French Guiana. Illegal gold mining in French Guiana is widespread and related to crime groups, violence and other serious crimes that significantly impact society. Gold trafficking from France to other European countries also takes place. There are numerous instances of metal theft in France. Crime groups target different sectors, and there have been cases of the looting of wind turbines, motorways, football stadiums, cemeteries and railways. Often, foreign groups are involved in such large-scale theft. Overall, non-renewable resource crimes may constitute a major source of financing for mafias and terrorist groups. The illegal drug trade in France is dominated by cannabis, as it is the number one drug consumed in France. The market has grown exponentially in recent years and is controlled by a few kingpins. It is difficult to uncover as it is fragmented and transnational. The consumption of marijuana over resin has also grown as older cannabis users seek organic and local products. This phenomenon led to an increase in self-production, which led to criminal networks reorganizing their structures by offering primarily marijuana instead of hash. However, the growing use and production of French and European marijuana did not cause a decline in the traditional Moroccan hash market. France is also a transit and destination country for marijuana. Cannabis from Morocco is transited through Spain to France and then transported to the rest of Europe by car, bus or truck. The cocaine market is the second-largest drug market in France, with it being a destination country for cocaine from South and Central America. There are two primary entry routes for cocaine: the port of Le Havre in the north of the country, and French Guiana, where cocaine is transported by road from Suriname and then flown to Paris by individuals or sent through the mail. Furthermore, France is a transit country for cocaine transported to the UK or the Netherlands. Given the proliferation of cocaine in France, tackling cocaine trafficking, along with cannabis trafficking, has become a main law enforcement priority for authorities. Heroin trafficking and consumption are on the rise in France. A decrease in heroin prices has led to an increase in consumption, along with a change from injecting to sniffing and smoking. French networks involved in the heroin trade do not work directly with large production and transit countries, as the majority of small networks buy the drug from neighbouring countries. Traffickers buy heroin in Belgium or the Netherlands before redistributing it across the country. Heroin is mostly produced in Afghanistan, and proceeds from the Afghan sources are reportedly occasionally used to finance terrorism. Lille is also a major hub for heroin trafficking in France. The drugs are predominantly produced in Belgium, Luxembourg or the Netherlands. In recent years, new psychoactive substances, mainly produced in Asia, are bought and sold online. Overall, France hosts one of the largest markets in Europe and the synthetic-drug trade is on the rise in the country, especially in festival environments, with the darknet and social media serving as major selling platforms. The organized crime landscape in France is dominated by criminal networks with little to no structure. These criminal networks are gangs from the suburbs that are involved in drug trafficking, primarily in the cannabis trade, as well as arms trafficking. Meanwhile, French intelligence notes that mafia-style groups in France operate discreetly and are often overlooked, while the scale of their activities is misunderstood. There is reportedly a high rate of mafia infiltration in legitimate bar, restaurant, tourism and hospitality businesses; construction, waste management, low-skilled public and commercial services; and agricultural sectors. These groups tend to be involved in poly-criminality and are often characterised by ethnicity or loyalty to a specific city, and often have links to drug trafficking groups. In France, there are signs that cooperation exists between both foreign and local criminal actors involved in money laundering. Foreign mafias are also present in France. Some believe that in addition to geographical proximity, legislative shortcomings in France have facilitated the Italian mafia taking root in France. Nigerian mafias, along with other Eastern European criminal groups that also dominate arms trafficking operations from the Balkan region, control the sexual exploitation market in France. Organized crime groups from Eastern Europe are also active in organized property crime, sexual exploitation, drug trafficking and cyber fraud. Meanwhile, state-embedded actors exist and mostly engage in money laundering, tax evasion and corruption, with many recorded cases occurring in the past 10 years. Furthermore, some politico-financial affairs linking state-embedded actors to criminal activities have transnational components. In general, French citizens lack faith in the government, as evidenced by multiple demonstrations and strikes against the government since Since , the French government has been required to implement national action plans every two years, which focus on transparency, integrity and accountability in public and economic life. France also has two independent authorities that oversee government action. Nevertheless, information access remains poor and France has been called on to reinforce its anti-corruption policies. On the international level, France is a state party to all relevant international treaties and conventions pertaining to organized crime. France also has a number of bilateral and multilateral security cooperation agreements and is one of only a few countries that have been and continue to be involved in subregional, regional and global initiatives. As far as international cooperation on mafia-related cases is concerned, however, it was reported in that exchanging information with France on such cases was difficult. A prime reason for this was the lack of political will, along with the fact that officials were reluctant to recognize the existence of mafia-style groups. On a domestic level, French legislation does not specifically define organized crime. France also has a law that reinforces the fight against organized crime, terrorism and terrorist financing, and enhances the guarantees of penal procedure. In France, there are eight specialized inter-regional jurisdictions with competences over drug trafficking, organized crime and financial crimes. In , a new national anti-terrorism prosecution office was also created, as a result of political will to adapt the judicial system to new trends in transnational organized crime. With regard to law enforcement, the French police and gendarmerie are in charge of combating organized crime, including drug trafficking, irregular immigration and cybercrime. The national police also has various bodies in charge of the fight against organized crime. In recent years, the relationship between the French police and the population has changed. Despite the fact that the police were deemed trusted heroes after the terror attacks in Paris, a few months after this there was a shift following numerous reports of police violence during anti-labour reform demonstrations. In , trust in security forces deteriorated even further, with the Ombudsman calling the loss in confidence a crisis. In terms of territorial integrity, with France being part of the Schengen zone, many traffickers have taken advantage of the lack of EU border controls to enter France. Moreover, French territories abroad render the border increasingly porous, as authorities have difficulties containing illicit flows into French Guiana and from there into mainland Europe. Within France, territorial integrity is often compromised in the suburbs of major cities. Overall, the French economy is more regulated than the economies of other EU countries. France has made numerous efforts to reduce regulatory burdens and in , the government launched a radical administrative streamlining and regulatory reform agenda. France is highly resilient to money laundering and terrorist financing. Its internal anti-money laundering legal and regulatory framework was substantially improved in Banks and credit institutions, as well as real estate agents, investment and insurance companies, are now subject to strict reporting and due diligence requirements. In , the country also adopted a law to enhance the detection of fraud and strengthen the measures used to tackle tax evasion. France has a department responsible for access to law, justice and victim support. There is also a federation of victim support associations called the French Victim Support and Mediation Institute. France has sustained its efforts to tackle human trafficking, shown by the increase in investigations, convictions and the identification of victims, and the approval of a new anti-human trafficking action plan in An interministerial mission was also set up for the protection of women against violence and the fight against human trafficking. Funds are allocated for the prevention of prostitution and for the provision of social and professional support to victims of sexual exploitation and human trafficking. At the same time, France is very active in combating and preventing organized crime at European and international levels. It has proposed enhanced security cooperation through the creation of common investigative teams and has engaged with South American nations to tackle the issue of deforestation. Anti-mafia activists in France have also argued that civil society suffers from a low awareness of the organized-crime phenomenon. With regard to the press in France, an increase in harassment and attacks targeting news media and journalists was reported in , mainly at the hands of protesters and riot police during the gilets jaunes yellow vests protests. Along with that, journalists were also increasingly exposed to online harassment by internet trolls, and a great number of lawsuits continue to be brought against investigative journalists. Despite this, however, overall the country maintains a high level of media freedom. The criminal markets score is represented by the pyramid base size and the criminal actors score is represented by the pyramid height, on a scale ranging from 1 to The resilience score is represented by the panel height, which can be identified by the side of the panel. A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index. We're constantly working to improve the Index. By participating in this survey, you will be providing us with insights and suggestions that will help us make the Index an even better resource. This report was funded in part by a grant from the United States Department of State. The opinions, findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State. Capital Paris. Income group High income. Population 67,, Geography type Coastal. Criminal markets 5. An assessment of the value, prevalence and non-monetary impacts of a specific crime type. Human trafficking 6. Human smuggling 6. Arms trafficking 6. Flora crimes 4. Fauna crimes 5. Non-renewable resource crimes 4. Heroin trade 6. Cocaine trade 6. Cannabis trade 6. Synthetic drug trade 5. Criminal actors 5. An assessment of the impact and influence of a specific criminal actor type on society. Mafia-style groups 6. Criminal networks 6. State-embedded actors 3. Foreign actors 7. Political leadership and governance 6. Government transparency and accountability 7. International cooperation 8. National policies and laws 7. A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime. Judicial system and detention 6. Law enforcement 7. Territorial integrity 5. Anti-money laundering 8. Economic regulatory capacity 8. Victim and witness support 5. Prevention 6. Non-state actors 7. Analysis Download full profile english french. People France is a destination country for human trafficking, with victims especially vulnerable to sexual exploitation, forced labour, forced begging and slavery. Trade There is a steady flow of illicit weapons into and within France, primarily originating from Eastern Europe and the US. Environment There is little evidence to suggest that a criminal market for flora exists in mainland France. Drugs The illegal drug trade in France is dominated by cannabis, as it is the number one drug consumed in France. Criminal Actors The organized crime landscape in France is dominated by criminal networks with little to no structure. Leadership and governance In general, French citizens lack faith in the government, as evidenced by multiple demonstrations and strikes against the government since Criminal justice and security In France, there are eight specialized inter-regional jurisdictions with competences over drug trafficking, organized crime and financial crimes. Economic and financial environment Overall, the French economy is more regulated than the economies of other EU countries. Civil society and social protection France has a department responsible for access to law, justice and victim support. Read the analysis Listen the podcasts View all events. Next Skip. How to measure organized crime? Read more on globalinitiative. 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Buy MDMA pills online in Rennes