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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. A novel, highly sensitive and selective safrole sensor has been developed using quartz crystal microbalance QCM coated with polyvinyl acetate PVAc nanofibers. Scanning electron microscopy SEM and atomic force microscopy AFM were used to analyze the PVAc nanofiber surface morphology, confirming its high surface area and roughness, which are beneficial in improving the sensor sensitivity compared to its thin-film counterpart. It also showed good reproducibility, rapid response time, and excellent recovery. Moreover, cross-interference of the QCM sensor response to non-target gases was investigated, yielding very low cross-sensitivity and high selectivity of the safrole sensor. Owing to its high robustness and low fabrication cost, this proposed sensing device is expected to be a promising alternative to classical instrumental analytical methods for monitoring safrole-based drug precursors. Electrospinning is a simple and versatile technique that can create a micron—thick film containing sub-micron scale nanofibers. This technique is used to fabricate nanofibers for various applications ranging from membrane filtration to tissue engineering, and more recently, electrochemical applications 1 — 6. The development of nanostructured materials, especially nanofiber as a sensing material, has been accelerated over the past decades 7. Electrospun nanofiber film offers fibers with very small diameters and large surface areas per unit mass, which are advantageous for gas sensing 8. The high specific surface area and porosity of electrospun nanofibers have sparked an increasing interest in their use as ultrasensitive gas sensors 9 — Thus, they have recently been used as active sensing layers and integrated onto various gas sensor platforms including resistive 13 , photoelectric 14 , amperometric 15 , optical 16 , and acoustic wave 17 , Among these devices, gravimetric sensors based on quartz crystal microbalance QCM have been preferred to be used for vapor detection because of their high sensitivity, fast response, inexpensive production, real-time measurement capability, and simple integration with other electronic components 19 — The QCM is basically a piezoelectric sensor platform employing acoustic-electric effects that can measure mass resolution down to the picogram level By modifying the QCM chip sensing area with appropriate sensing layers e. Several studies have highlighted the need for the development of a better technique for the detection of drug—synthesis reactants i. Conventional analytical methods e. However, these techniques are costly, not portable, and challenging to be operated in real-time. Therefore, the development of a rapid, reliable, low-cost, and real-time safrole sensor is needed. In our previously reported studies 37 , 38 , although nanofiber-based QCM safrole sensors had been developed and tested, their performance was still unsatisfactory in terms of sensitivity and selectivity, due to poor intermolecular interaction between safrole molecules and sensing layers i. Therefore, polyvinyl acetate PVAc -based nanofiber membrane was developed and employed in this work to overcome this issue. This hydrophobic polymer could be easily electrospun on the active layer of QCM. The hydrophobicity of PVAc is essential since the response of the QCM vapor sensor is heavily interfered by water vapor. For the sensing mechanism, the oxygen molecules in PVAc structure will act as a Lewis base that can interact with safrole Lewis acid. A Lewis base is an electron pair donor, while a Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor They can react with each other forming a covalent bond, where both electrons are provided by the Lewis base. In case of their molecular orbitals, Lewis acids and bases have an unoccupied low-energy atomic states and occupied relatively high energy atomic states, respectively. A lone electron pair i. Furthermore, to demonstrate its feasibility as a practical sensor in a real field, cross-sensitivity measurements toward other non-target gases were also conducted and evaluated. Continuous nanofiber structures with a smooth surface are clearly seen from the inset images of Fig. Meanwhile, the morphology of PVAc thin-film produced by a spin coating process revealed a smooth surface with several pores see Fig. Both types of structures presented relatively homogenous features in their physical morphology. Furthermore, they also possessed 3D pore architectures that led to easy accessibility and fast exposure to the gases, rendering the PVAc nanostructured membrane a potential candidate for application in routine vapor detection. The 3D porous structure increased the sensor surface area and enhanced the contact area between safrole molecules and sensing sites. Thus, it could improve the sensing performances. Table 1 also shows the sensing layer thickness h sensor , which is calculated using Eq. Parameters of developed PVAc sensors i. In the case of the PVAc thin-film NF 0 , a relatively homogeneous surface with several porous structures was obtained. Besides, because of their similar morphologies shown in Fig. The conductance and susceptance spectra were measured to analyze the resonant characteristics of the QCM-based PVAc sensor prior to safrole exposure as shown in Fig. Accordingly, quality factor Q—factor of the resonator could be extracted as the ratio of the peak frequency to the half bandwidth in the conductance spectrum. This demonstrated that both polymer deposition techniques used in this work i. It should be noted that for such silicon microcantilever structures coated with photoresist in a drop-casting method, their Q—factors may deteriorate by one order of magnitude Frequency characteristics of all sensors NF 0—NF 3 measured in a conductance and b susceptance modes. To directly investigate the influence of surface-to-volume enhancement of the nanofibers, both samples were previously treated with similar loading depositions i. During the gas sensing test, the safrole concentration was initially set at 10 ppm and subsequently increased to 50 ppm. As expected, both sensors NF 0 and NF 2 experienced frequency shifts toward lower values. However, from the sensor responses, it was clearly shown that the nanofiber structure NF 2 exhibits larger frequency shifts i. This result has confirmed the importance of having larger surface area and porous surface structures made as nanofibers compared with ordinary thin film This argument for the response difference between these two sensors has been supported by the SEM Fig. The SEM images indicate that the thin-film sample had a relatively smooth surface with a few pores, while the nanofiber sample possessed more membrane pores space between the nanofibers. Moreover, the AFM images show that the nanofiber structure had a rougher surface and higher surface area compared to the thin film. To investigate the influence of loading deposition on QCM-based PVAc nanofiber sensor performance, the electrospinning parameters were varied as listed in Table 1. The loading deposition was increased from NF 1 to NF 3. Figure 6 b depicts the dynamic responses of three sensors with different nanofiber structures under exposure to increasing safrole concentrations from 10 to ppm. It shows that the response of the PVAc nanofiber sensors could be enhanced by increasing the loading depositions. The sensitivity, which is defined as the slope of the linear correlation between the safrole concentration and its frequency change, also increased from NF 1 to NF 3 i. A good linear correlation between loading deposition frequency shift after coating and sensor sensitivity is shown in Fig. The feasibility of intermolecular interaction between the active layer and the analyte was therefore enhanced, resulting in higher frequency shifts. PVAc nanofiber Fig. IR spectrum of safrole is shown in Fig. Figure 7 c shows the peak characteristics of both PVAc nanofiber and safrole. These results confirmed that no chemical reaction occurred when PVAc nanofiber was exposed to safrole. The only possible interaction was intermolecular interaction, which cannot be detected using the FTIR method. There may be two scenarios by which safrole is received by the sensor as illustrated in Fig. First, the carbonyl group, an ester of PVAc, has an O atom with a higher electronegativity than the C atom of safrole. Consequently, dipole-dipole interactions can occur. Furthermore, one O atom of PVAc monomer can interact with the carbon atoms of two safrole molecules, so that one monomer of PVAc can interact with four safrole molecules. Secondly, the molecular structure may influence the interaction and cause different sensor sensitivities to the analyte. PVAc is a polymer that has a polar structure, so that interactions will be stronger with analyte molecules that also have a polar structure Each analyte has a unique molecular structure affecting its polarity. Schematic representation of the proposed interaction mechanism between the PVAc nanofiber and safrole molecules. Compared to other materials, the PVAc nanofiber sensors produced by electrospinning exhibited the highest sensitivity. The explanation of this phenomenon has been discussed previously in the proposed sensing mechanism section. To investigate their sensing reproducibility, the PVAc nanofiber sensors were exposed to safrole vapors at a fixed concentration of 50 ppm and multiple gas injections up to 20 times. The slight fluctuation in frequency shift suggests that all QCM chips exhibited high sensing reproducibility. The full sensor response and recovery characteristics are important parameters in the performance of gas sensors. Thus, to investigate them in the PVAc sensors, we modified the gas sensing configuration. The response-recovery investigation was performed by modifying the sensor chamber in accordance with previously reported setup 9 , The safrole concentration was predetermined at 50 ppm. The response and recovery behaviors of the NF 2 sensor are depicted in Fig. Figure 9 c shows the response of the NF 3 sensor to safrole vapor at 50 ppm, which fits the first-order instrument response. For other analytes, the sensor time constant also differed, depending on the interaction between sensor and measured gas molecules. Regarding sensing, we believe that the properties of the analyte i. Figure 9 d shows the correlation graph between the analyte boiling points and the relaxation time of the QCM-based PVAc sensor. The results indicate that the relaxation time increases linearly with the rise of the analyte boiling point for most of the analytes. The anomaly appears for the methanol analyte, for which factors other than analyte boiling point may have influenced the relaxation time. Thus, in-depth investigation into this matter will be necessary for our next study. Moreover, the results presented here only apply when the sensor responses were measured using static batch method. Therefore, cross-sensitivity experiments were conducted with various volatile organic compound VOC gases at 50 ppm concentration, which are usually present in ambient air US EPA. As the sensor under test, we used the NF 2 sensor, whose results are shown in Fig. Extremely high selectivity was observed for safrole gas, whose measured sensitivity is 1. Meanwhile, the PVAc nanofiber sensor showed a very low response toward other gases e. Thus, it can be concluded that the PVAc nanofiber sensor NF 2 showed an excellent selectivity to safrole vapor. As sensor robustness is very important for real device applications, the PVAc safrole sensors were regularly tested with 50 ppm safrole vapor every 5 days over a 30 day period to evaluate their long-term stability. Figure 10 b displays the responses frequency shifts as a function of time over 30 days. The sensor still displayed a good response with an almost constant value of resonance frequency after 30 days of gas sensing measurement, indicating that the employed QCM system is highly stable for long-term use. PVAc nanofibers have been successfully fabricated through a simple and facile electrospinning technique, in which their sensing characteristics toward safrole vapor have been investigated. The high surface area and porous structure of the nanofibers clearly influence the safrole sensor performance. Compared to the device coated with PVAc thin-film, the sensors functionalized with PVAc nanofibers exhibited an excellent enhancement of safrole detection. The response sensitivity of the PVAc nanofiber sensor is 1. The detection limit of the sensor could reach as low as 0. As—prepared sensors have shown good reproducibility, long-term stability, and high selectivity toward others analytes. All in all, the QCM sensing chip modified with electrospun polymers may offer a new strategy in real-time sensing of drug precursors. All chemicals were used as received without further purification. The electrospinning process Fig. After being collected on the chip, the as-spun nanofibers were then dried overnight prior to their use in sensor assessments. Schematic illustration of a electrospinning setup, b a spin-coating process, and c chemical structure of polyvinyl acetate PVAc and safrole. To investigate the effect of enhanced surface area by nanofibers on QCM sensor performance, besides the electrospinning technique, a spin coating method was also utilized for producing a PVAc membrane with a different structure i. The PVAc thin-film sensor was fabricated using the same parameters as previously reported The two-step spin coating process was employed during the thin-film membrane fabrication to obtain a deposited film mass similar to that of the PVAc nanofiber sample created by electrospinning. The chemical structures of polyvinyl acetate PVAc and safrole are shown in Fig. The concentration of an injected analyte in the testing chamber was calculated according to Eq. This equation assumes that the safrole is fully evaporated in the chamber after injection. The responses of the QCM sensors were tested by monitoring the change in the resonance frequency, as measured by a frequency counter. The change in the resonant frequency of the QCM sensor is related to the change in mass loading on the QCM sensor chip. To desorb the analyte vapor from the QCM sensing chips, dry ambient air was used during purging. The amount of mass deposited on the QCM chip can be calculated according to the Sauerbrey equation 34 , as expressed in Eq. The developed PVAc membranes i. For cases of created nanofibers, regardless of their similar diameters, it is obvious that the NF 1 and NF 3 samples have the smallest and largest deposited masses, respectively, which differ by one order of magnitude, affecting the performance of the QCM sensors. We also thank Mr. Rianjanu acknowledges a Ph. We thank Dr. Setyawan P. Sakti for characterizing the conductance and susceptance of the QCM using a vector network analyzer Omicron-Lab Bode Wasisto and K. All authors confirmed the final manuscript. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Sci Rep. Find articles by Kuwat Triyana. Find articles by Aditya Rianjanu. Find articles by Doni Bowo Nugroho. Find articles by Ahmad Kusumaatmaja. Find articles by Roto Roto. Find articles by Risa Suryana. Find articles by Hutomo Suryo Wasisto. 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Buy MDMA pills Yogyakarta

You have full access to this open access chapter. This context is contrasted with that of youth in Indonesia, who also seek out hassle-free highs with their peers, but live under a government that is waging a deadly war against drugs, where they have little access to harm reduction information and tools. Our team discovered that Indonesian youth are turning to psychoactive prescription drugs PPDs to get high, which they consider safer than illicit drugs that can lead to the death penalty, but which are also highly addictive. You have full access to this open access chapter, Download chapter PDF. This chapter is written in the midst of the US opioid crisis, which is an extreme challenge for families and policymakers there, and causing astounding numbers of deaths across the country. In the wake of the crisis, anthropologists are revisiting themes of structural violence and pharmaceutical malpractice, both of which fuel the addiction crisis Hansen Talking to colleagues at the conference of the American Anthropological Association, I had a hard time explaining why, in the Netherlands, levels of opioid addiction are very low, despite widespread use of recreational drugs. As a result, Amsterdam youth have tended to stay away from the hard stuff. But this is not the full answer. Much has to do with a more subtle regulation of drug use by governmental health programs in Amsterdam. In doing so, the city authorities have presented themselves as pragmatic harm reduction agents, who have earned the trust of partying youth. They provide the youth information, and they also call on youth to take responsibility for their drug use and for one another. In our research in Amsterdam, we found that our interlocutors came to trust harm reduction workers as sources of accurate information on drugs, even as such workers sought to support youth in self-regulation and keep track of new trends in drug use. We contrast these harm reduction dynamics in Amsterdam with the drug-use situation in Indonesia, where a draconian drug war has been raging over the past decade. Like their peers in Amsterdam, Indonesian youth self-regulated their substance use to avoid harm. But, in contrast, they fear the authorities, which means they did so with limited information on the potential harmful effects of the drugs they used Idrus and Hardon There is a large body of social and behavioral research, briefly discussed in the introduction, that aims to understand why young people take drugs and what determines addiction trajectories. Researchers then propose to intervene at the level of these risk factors to prevent drug use problems. This youth-at-risk paradigm is being challenged by social scientists who point to the ever-changing nature of drug use, and to the social—not just individual—pleasure that young people experience when taking drugs with their friends Duff Because of these shared norms, being surrounded by friends can reduce the risks of taking drugs while at the same time increasing pleasure Hunt et al. An example of this etiquette is young women refusing drinks from strangers. If they do, their friends will chastise them, as doing so puts one at risk of being drugged and raped. A team of youth ethnographers conducted fieldwork at festivals, clubs, and private after-parties Van Schipstal et al. In the second half of this chapter we contrast these self-regulation practices with those observed in our Indonesian field sites, where the government has been imprisoning people caught with drugs. Our interlocutors in Amsterdam confronted uncertainty about the contents of recreational pills and powders, by acquiring them from friends and trusted connections. Generally, more experienced users were responsible for buying drugs and sharing them at parties, clubs, and festivals Hardon et al. Often youth consulted online drug forums, such as Pill Report www. Young people can bring their purchased drugs to testing sites throughout the Netherlands, where they are asked a few questions on the source of the drugs and past experiences. During the visit, a simple test is done to determine the MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, the active ingredient content of ecstasy pills. Other drugs, such as lysergic acid diethylamide LSD or gamma hydroxybutyrate GHB or G , which require more detailed equipment, are sent to a laboratory for further testing. Young people often post the test results on the Pill Reports website, along with pictures of the drugs for identification see Fig. A compilation of pictures of ecstasy pills posted online, prepared by the Utrecht Data School for the ChemicalYouth project, November The government-sponsored harm reduction programs do not endorse pillreports. They warn that drug content can change with each new batch of pills and online reports may therefore be inaccurate. To meet the need for information, they have developed a smartphone application called Red Alert, through which they can instantaneously inform drug users of substandard pills when these are identified in the pill-testing facilities. Alongside notes of caution about risky substances entering the Dutch drug market, the Red Alert app also provides information, for example, on the increasingly high dosages of MDMA found in ecstasy pills, noting that high dosages can cause adverse effects such as anxiety and insomnia Hardon et al. Sometimes, the city also uses billboards to alert youth. For example, in December , after several tourists died after consuming cocaine cut with heroin, purchased from street dealers, the municipality placed billboards in the center of the tourist district warning tourists about contaminated cocaine see Fig. Harm reduction workers had realized that tourists would not have received Red Alerts on their phones. Photo taken by Anita Hardon, December , Amsterdam. Attendees were alerted via several media: push notifications went out to users of the RedAlert app, posts were shared via several harm reduction organizations via their Facebook pages, and warning signs were posted at the entrance of clubs and bars Fig. Photo taken by Hayley Murray, October , Amsterdam. In addition to making sure drugs are of good quality by buying from trusted sources, and in turn having the substances tested, our interlocutors sought to achieve hassle-free highs by taking the right dosage of drugs. However, different drugs require different dosing techniques. MDMA, the active component of ecstasy pills, can be purchased as a powder; because of this, it is weighed. I am going to measure the exact dose of MDMA for everybody. One by one you can tell me how much you guys weigh and the rule of thumb basically is 1. GHB, on the other hand, comes as a fluid and is dosed with a syringe, see Fig. Photo taken by Romy Kaa, July , Amsterdam. This detailed approach helped the partiers feel safer in their GHB use, as this substance is notoriously difficult to dose. Photo taken by Inge van Schipstal, , Amsterdam. The online drug forum we examined gives the following instructions:. Measure out approximately 5 mg of your material. Measure out 1 ml of water and hold it in your mouth for minutes to see if any reaction occurs. If not, swallow and wait 1 hour to see if any reaction occurs. If no reaction has occurred, repeat the same operation with 2 ml of water. At the end of that hour repeat with 5 ml of water. This can continue along until you reach a level where you are satisfied that you will not have an extreme anaphylactic reaction. The amount required to do this will of course depend on the compound in question and its presumed active dose. These cautious dosing strategies are reinforced by educational materials circulated by Amsterdam-based harm reduction programs. One too much can make you feel bad, and ruin the party. That would be a shame. Realize that when you take too much you will also ruin the evening for your friends who are partying with you Celebrate Safe Photo taken by Hayley Murray, October Amsterdam. Self-regulation, as seen in the strategies outlined above, is all about taking care, by buying good quality drugs and using appropriate dosages together with friends. This includes not accepting drinks from strangers. Young people are assertive in enacting and requesting this social support. For example, Nina told us how she asked for support from a friend, saying to her:. Tonight I want to test my limit of sanity. I want to try and go crazy and come back, and see what this world looks like. I am going to try at least double the dose of LSD I have taken \[before\], and maybe a little bit more. And then come down with MDMA. You be here with me, OK? Van Schipstal et al. Others say they look for online advice, which we also observed in our ethnography of online drug forums Berning and Hardon We for example found this post by Blanka, in which she asked for advice on a new kind of drug she was researching:. I am getting ready to research allylescaline … and will write up a Trip Report afterwards but does anybody know if I can research \[use\] allylescaline while still having residual kratom under the microscope \[under the influence of kratom\]? Also does anyone know of other substances interacting with allylescaline? And yes I have tried Google and looking here for the answer. Hunt et al. For example, users know that they should drink water when taking ecstasy, but not too much. In addition to water, some of our interlocutors took magnesium pills before ingesting ecstasy to reduce the uncontrolled jaw movements caused by the drug. And they also paid attention to the spaces in which they used drugs. MDMA can be used at dance parties or at home; one person explained it was best to do so:. If you like other types of trips you can also go to the countryside, out in nature. There you can mediate or take a walk to calm yourself before it begins. Sunday and Monday tend to be recovery days, designated to recharge for the coming work or study week. Young people who worked in the nightlife industry reported difficulties with the transition. Smoking cannabis was a balancing act for them, which they did to prepare their bodies for sleep, sometimes along with melatonin to reset their biological clocks. Many of our respondents also took food supplements, vitamins, and serotonin boosters such as 5-HTP, sometimes combined in fruit and vegetable smoothies, to recuperate Van Schipstal et al. Dutch harm reduction programs highlight this need for self-regulation. Catch up with sleep so you are ready for the next party: eat a good breakfast. These self-regulation techniques are not static but evolve through collaborative experimentation with substances and shared evaluation of results. The city thus supports sensible self-regulation by being alert to new trends and responding rapidly when problems occur. Such a pragmatic approach to harm reduction generates trust in the government-sponsored testing facilities and information sources, enabling rational strategies to confront the uncertainty of consuming illegal drugs. They also trust each other and the techniques that they have developed to avoid bad trips. Perhaps most surprising of all, they trust online drug forums, where they consult and follow the advice of complete strangers. In the eyes of the harm reduction programs, this trust in strangers and online reports is unsettling. The Dutch Trimbos Institute, a government-sponsored agency responsible for testing services and the Red Alert App, advises against using information from Pillreports. We turn now to self-regulation in Indonesia, where young people are experiencing an intensification of the ongoing drug war. Across our field sites, we observed that young people were turning away from illegal narcotic drugs and toward psychoactive prescription drugs PPDs , which they were able to access easily through street dealers and pharmacies. They were not aware that some of the PPDs they were taking can cause addictions. President Jokowi, shortly after being elected in , reinvigorated the drug war. He reintroduced the death penalty for drug traffickers, which soon after led to the execution of the Dutch citizen Ang Kiem Soei for his alleged involvement in producing ecstasy. The drug authorities also clamped down on the trafficking of methamphetamines locally known as shabu , reporting nearly every day on raids on meth laboratories and seizures by the police United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Amphetamines, ecstasy, cocaine, and marijuana are all classified as Group 1 narcotics in Indonesia on the basis that they are therapeutically useless and have a high potential for addiction. Since , possession of these drugs can lead to life imprisonment and the death penalty for drug traffickers and users. Group 2 drugs include opioids such as morphine, oxycodone, and the opioid-replacement drug methadone. These drugs, according to the narcotics law, have some therapeutic value as well as a potential for addiction. Street sellers and users caught taking these drugs can also end up in prison. Our fieldwork in Indonesia revealed that many of our drug-using respondents were struggling to make a living and had a limited education. Needing to work in the informal sector, they turned to drugs to induce confidence and increase stamina, selecting combinations that did not make them feel too disoriented. It is also facilitated by physicians, who like their colleagues in the United States, prescribe PPDs without sufficiently recognizing the capacity of the substances to cause dependence. The Indonesian health and drug authorities are only recently beginning to realize how widespread the off-label use of PPDs is. Our ethnographic studies confirm the popularity of these PPDs. Our informants in Indonesia, whose friend and acquaintance groups regularly take drugs, told us that PDDs were cheaper and easier to obtain than the Group 1 narcotic substances. They encouraged each other to try out different kinds of PPDs in order to find out which combinations worked best for them. See Table 2. In our focus group discussions, respondents noted that PPDs have different, sometimes contradictory, effects on individuals. Tramadol, for example, made Zaky sleepy, while it made Amir awake and alert. For Mamat, the drugs did not work well at all, as they made him itch and gave him ulcers. To achieve these stronger highs, our respondents mixed different PPDs, mixed PPDs with alcohol, and combined PPDs with hot food or drinks, and also experimented with diverse ways of administration oral, injection, inhalation of crushed oral tablets. Much of the discussion in our interviews and focus groups with young people revolved around their experiences in finding the best PPDs, by which they meant drugs that generate a good high without unwanted effects such as dizziness or nausea. For example, one of our informants in Gowa, Broken, a year-old, said that he first relied on the painkiller tramadol, an opioid pain killer, to feel high. But after trying Somadril, another pain killer, it became his drug of choice. He liked Somadril better because it not only made him feel high, it also made him feel more confident and increased his appetite. When we spoke, he was taking Somadril every day. If he wanted the effect to kick in rapidly, he combined it with spicy food. He usually did this when informally performing music on Saturday nights Idrus and Hardon Taken on its own, the former can produce a strong effect, so Romo did not combine Somadril with other drugs. He felt that Tramadol had a more pleasant, mellow effect on him. Much of the discussion revolved around whether the combinations of PPDs are cocok compatible with their bodies. Finding a cocok substance involved trying out and combining drugs for different purposes. Yayan, an year-old street singer in Yogyakarta who previously favored marijuana and heroin, subsequently tried out two different brands of cough tablets to replace these illegal drugs. He had begun taking 50 tablets of dextromethorphan and 40 tablets of Kode together to achieve a strong effect. He had tried combining 20 tablets of Kode and 10 tablets of trihexyphenidyl, but this combination made him feel sleepy; it was not cocok. Once, he mixed tramadol, Calmlet, and a local traditional drink, but this combination made him vomit and cough up blood. Dextromethorphan is a cheap drug and is generally taken in large quantities. It also does not have euphoric effects in lower dosages. Jono, a year-old, told us he had been using PPDs since his first year of high school. He became a dealer so he could use the profits to buy school supplies, snacks, clothes, and more PPDs, which he and his friends sold. He bought tramadol for Rp — per tablet and then resold it for Rp — per tablet. The money earned was shared among his friends, and used to buy drugs again. We found PPD use patterns to be temporally structured. One group of friends drank and popped extreme quantities of PPDs to get high and feel courageous for motorbike races, a popular activity among Indonesia youth. Zaky, a year-old, told us that he took up to 10 tramadol tablets per day on a weekday, but increased his dose to 40 tablets on Saturday nights. Similarly, Mamat, a year-old, took 15 tablets of tramadol on weekdays, but to prepare for the motorbike racing, he took 7 tablets in the morning, 15 tablets in the afternoon, and 7 tablets or more in the evening. Harianto, a year-old, combined 10 tramadol tablets with five bottles of Topee Rioja beer. Another focused ethnography was conducted in high-end clubs in Makassar Amelia There, cocaine and ecstasy had been the drugs of choice, but the young partygoers had turned to the use of poppers, which they claimed were not yet illegal; see Fig. Photos taken by Lia Amelia, , Indonesia. Popular brands of poppers. Note the Real Amsterdam brand, which reflects the circulation of imaginations globally. Nightclub visitors found it safer to bring poppers when clubbing than other club drugs such as ecstasy, meth, and marijuana because poppers had not yet been included by the National Narcotics Agency BNN on its list of narcotics, psychotropics, and addictive substances. Like Rani, Cindy preferred to use poppers rather than other drugs for clubbing, even though she had previously used ecstasy. Rani and her friends did not immediately use poppers on arriving at the club. When the DJ started, it was time to use the poppers. The dance beats made them excited and poppers were especially complementary for such moments. Moreover, the substance gave them confidence to connect with others on the dance floor. Rather, they experiment with sexual enjoyment with multiple partners. Cindy explained:. But I do not feel anything when doing it with my husband. I enjoy it more with my date, especially with poppers, they understand more what I want. Amelia , p. Cindy and her friends worried that taking poppers was not healthy. When using them, Cindy suffered from insomnia, and others reported experiencing dizziness and headaches. To combat this fear, they eat healthily, go to the gym, and do yoga during the week. The small 10 ml bottles of poppers used by clubbers did not list any contents. They were labeled as cleaners, with warnings that they should not be swallowed. Mina, one of our informants at the Makassar health office, said that it was hard to check the contents of poppers, but once, when she had one of the liquids sent for lab testing, she was told that it contained morphine. Risks of PPDs are bigger when they are used daily, as was the case for a group of sex workers who worked along Losari Beach. They told us they used Somadril every day to bolster their confidence when approaching prospective clients. The three male and three female sex workers filled out four-day recalls for us, in which they reported using between 6 and 24 pills a day, far above the recommended daily maximum. They explained that they craved Somadril if they take it, suffering all kinds of aches and pains, anxiety, and insomnia, and they acknowledged that they had become dependent on the drug. While they initially took the drug to enable their work, they said that they now had to work to be able to buy the drug Hardon and Ihsan Across our Indonesian field sites, we encountered young people who felt that they had become addicted to PPDs. Jack, a year-old student in Makassar, for example, told us that he had been taking tramadol since high school:. Initially it was because of my friends. Idrus and Hardon , p. In Maros, Aco told us that he started using PPDs in order to be accepted by his peers, but he came to need the drugs daily, just like food. Similarly, Romo told us:. Even if I were paid any amount I would not stop. If the drug is no longer available, I would maybe make it myself. Harm reduction programs in Indonesia have only recently acknowledged that young people are at risk of becoming addicted to PPDs, and that they might be facing an epidemic similar to the opioid crisis in the United States. Local-level health officials and drug policymakers have responded to problematic PPD use by limiting access to these drugs, but our ethnography suggests that young people can easily find pharmacies or street dealers who are willing to sell them the drugs, or psychiatrists who are willing to prescribe them Idrus and Hardon They involved cautious dosing and careful assessments of effects. However, in Amsterdam, young drug users turned to the government to check the quality of the drugs that they were taking, and they were regularly provided up-to-date information on substandard drugs that were circulating on the market. They also received medical advice on possible adverse effects and how to prevent them. Self-regulation for our Indonesian respondents, in contrast, meant refraining from illegal drugs to avoid being incarcerated, and relying on the use of prescription drugs, which were seen to be safe. It also involved mixing drugs to get desired effects, while ensuring that such effects were also compatible with other elements, like needing to approach clients to earn a living as sex worker, or singing on the streets, or specificities of individual bodies. A key framework for our interlocutors was compatibility, which each drug user sought to achieve by observing effects, mixing PPDs with food and drinks, and finding the right combination of PPDs and the right dosage. Such balancing involved moderating use to not feel too high, and, for some of our financially better-off interlocutors, taking vitamins and eating good food. For others, balancing also involved using more PPDs to ease the withdrawal effects from not using other drugs. However, despite their caution and these balancing acts, many of our interlocutors became addicted to PPDs. While they initially experimented with PPDs for pleasure, over time they came to crave the drugs and suffer withdrawal effects. Finally, the number of pills taken per day increased, which could also become an economic problem. Thus far, our discussion of self-regulation has focused on the most common recreational chemicals found in the field. In this section we now turn to the history, regulatory status, and adverse effects of commonly used drugs and chemicals, highlighting how new understandings of efficacies emerge over time Hardon and Sanabria Specifically, we do this for MDMA and GHB in the Netherlands, and the commonly used PPDs in Indonesia, showing how the regulatory status of both legal and illegal drugs is ever-changing in relation to dynamic safety and efficacy profiles, and in response to how young people appropriate and experience the substances. Perhaps surprisingly, in light of the above ethnographic descriptions of drug use, MDMA is still classified as a hard drug in Amsterdam while cannabis or magic mushrooms, are classified as soft drugs and sold in small quantities in coffeeshops Uitermark and Cohen Our fieldwork revealed that while bars and festival organizers are expected to prevent MDMA from entering their sites, young people could consume these drugs without repercussions at festivals and in bars. In response to this widespread use, Dutch politicians, especially younger ones, regularly call for the legalization of MDMA. Often cited is an analysis conducted by a team of researchers in the United Kingdom that found MDMA safer than nicotine and alcohol Nutt et al. But to date, the policy has not changed. In the meantime, clinical trials have shown that MDMA has beneficial effects in the treatment of trauma in clinical trials Feduccia et al. But MDMA can be used in many ways. Reports from pill-testing facilities show that the MDMA content of ecstasy pills used by young people has been increasing, which seems to be leading to increased rates of adverse events, more specifically, increased heartbeat, difficulty sleeping, and panic attacks. Brain imaging studies suggest that ecstasy depletes serotonin in the brain and increases the stress hormone cortisol, which causes disruptions in sleep patterns Reneman et al. While studying parties and festivals in Amsterdam, we became concerned that the culture of calculated hedonism, in which self-regulation and responsible drug use is the norm, may suppress narratives on adverse drug-related events. Our worries increased after reading a report by the Trimbos Institute that analyzed the clinical reports of patients who had reported to an addiction care center with strange neurological symptoms. Given the huge number of MDMA users in the Netherlands, the number may be small, but is it perhaps the tip of an iceberg? Adverse effects of substances often only become known when large populations use them. In the above description of self-regulation in Amsterdam, we also mentioned the use of GHB. This drug is a relative newcomer to the party scene. The Vice blogger interviewed an anonymous GHB user who explains that the most important ingredient is gamma butyrolactone GBL , which is a chemical used as a paint thinner and floor stripper, which can easily be bought in hardware stores. GBL is then mixed with drain cleaner, which, the anonymous GHB user clarifies, is done to adjust the pH of the mixture. Other ingredients are demineralized water and concentrated acetic acid. The anonymous source stresses,. Anyway, with pH level test strips I check the acidity of the substance, depending on which I add a little more GBL or sodium hydroxide. After that, I always take half a dose to test the effects myself. Vice Adverse events emerged quite soon after GHB became a popular party drug. It became clear that the substance is easily overdosed and, if that happens, people become unconscious and can end up in coma Trimbos-Instituut Responding to many young people ending up in ICUs after a night out, the harm reduction programs in Amsterdam tried to discourage GHB use through a campaign warning that it can cause you to pass out, and advising friends to bring an unconscious person to the hospital as soon as possible. It also became clear very quickly that some young people who use GHB frequently become seriously addicted to the substance, and that this is an addiction that is very hard to overcome. Because of the severe adverse effects and addiction risk, the national drug authorities decided in to include GHB in the list of hard drugs, alongside MDMA and heroin. Many establishments in Amsterdam now have a zero-tolerance policy on GHB. The PPDs used by our informants in Indonesia have diverse efficacies and regulatory statuses. They include heroin substitution drugs, potent painkillers containing tramadol or carisoprodol the active ingredient of Somadril , sleeping pills and anti-anxiety drugs containing alprozalam , and cough medicines containing dextromethorphan , see Table 2. While the heroin substitution drugs methadone and buprenorphine were developed to counter addiction, we observed that in Indonesia these drugs have become part of the pharmacopeia for drug users. PPDs containing the anti-anxiety medicine alprozalam were also popular among our respondents. This drug is not primarily used to feel high; indeed it does not cause euphoria according to the pharmacological handbooks. Rather, it is used to self-medicate panic attacks or general malaise caused by the other PPDs used, or to dampen the pain that comes with not using drugs one has come to depend on. The Indonesian authorities have forbidden sales of single-ingredient dextromethorphan pills to prevent misuse by youth. But the active ingredient is still on the market, in the form of syrups and combination drugs, which can thus be used as substitution drugs for those who want to continue taking the drug to feel high. PPDs are manufactured by large pharmaceutical companies that set the parameter of efficacy used in clinical trials. Independent studies are rare in the field of pharmaceuticals, if only because they are very expensive. When problems occur, they are often only noticed once the products have been out on the market for a long time, and post-market surveillance picks them up, or when addiction problems become hard to ignore, as in the opioid crisis. Aware that potent pain killers can cause addiction, following a ban of carisoprodol by the European Medicine Authority EMEA and responding to reports of overuse of Somadril for recreational use, the Indonesian Food and Drug Authority canceled the distribution permit for the drug. When we asked about the drug in pharmacies, we were referred to the Indonesian pharmaceutical compendium Informasi Specialite Obat , which lists Somadril for all kinds of aches and pains: lower back pain, muscle spasms, tension headache, painful menstruation, and other ailments such as chronic arthritis Ikatan Sarjana Farmasi Indonesia The guide does not warn of the risk of addiction. Carisoprodol entered the global market in the s. Wallace Laboratories the US company that still produces the Soma brand , claimed that Carisoprodol had superior muscle-relaxing properties and less potential for misuse than meprobamate, the tranquilizer that it replaced Berger et al. Marketed as Miltown, Meprobamate was the first tranquilizer to appear on the American market. But, Meprobamate turned out to be habit-forming Tone ; Herzberg It later became apparent that carisoprodol did so too, because it metabolized into meprobamate in the body Olsen et al. Nevertheless, it is still on the market in the United States as a Class IV drug, meaning that it is accepted for prescribed medical use but its use can lead to physical or psychological dependence. In Europe, a post-market study Bramness et al. Carisoprodol was subsequently taken off the market. The PPDs used by our Indonesian respondents are legal because they are seen to have therapeutic use in the treatment of pain, anxiety, heroin addiction, and insomnia. But this does not mean that they are safe. Pharmaceutical drugs are tested in clinical trials before they come on the market; however, in such trials the parameters of safety and efficacy tend to be determined by the companies that sponsor the trials. Evidence of adverse effects often only emerges once the drugs are on the market Healy ; Medawar and Hardon Norwegian post-market surveillance for example revealed that carisoprodol causes dependence as do tramadol and alprazolam. In contrast, MDMA is not a legal drug in the Netherlands, because it is seen to be a dangerous drug with no therapeutic indications. But this assessment is being questioned by studies that suggest that MDMA is safer than nicotine and alcohol and by new clinical trials that show that the substance can have therapeutic use. At the same time, addiction clinics are reporting rare adverse effects among MDMA users that need to be taken into consideration in future use of the substance. How to reduce the harm caused by the ever-changing drug use practices of youth? The Amsterdam approach, as we have seen, has made recreational drug use safer by providing services to test drugs and observing drug-use patterns at festivals, with an aim of supporting self-regulation and providing users up-to-date information. In doing so, Dutch government-sponsored health programs co-produce a drug-use scene in which addiction is rare and adverse events quickly addressed. In thinking through what drug-related harm can be prevented, the ChemicalYouth collaborative proposed a more radical, deliberative approach Wardman Such an approach would go further in co-producing knowledge on safety and efficacy of commonly used recreational chemicals, by using the tools of artificial intelligence to generate evidence from drug experimentation forums on the effects of chemicals. We still are convinced that those contributing to such forums could be productive collaborators, and are working to demonstrate how this might be done. In Chapter 8 we present some results from our ethnographies of online knowledge production, reflecting more on how virtual spaces could be used as sites for joint learning. Focusing on chemical practices generates insights into how youth appropriate diverse chemicals to feel good and how they seek to mitigate harm. In Amsterdam, young people manage risks by frequenting government-sponsored testing facilities to assess the quality of illegal drugs, while in Indonesia they reduce harm by substituting illegal drugs with psychoactive prescription drugs to limit the risk of being incarcerated. Government regulators respond to shifting drug use patterns by changing the regulatory status of drugs and curtailing drug supply. In the Netherlands, for example, GHB was classified as a hard drug, following reports that young people were becoming heavily addicted to the drug, while in Indonesia the government discontinued the sale of cough tablets when they found that young people were using them to get high. Youth drug use practices are highly dynamic. New ways of using drugs are tried out and effects evaluated. Self-experimenting online communities exchange information on new kinds of drugs and rapidly adapt to the challenges posed by new compounds, for instance, through substance warnings and immediate, practical peer support for members experiencing problems. The international character of such forums and the large number of participants means that there are always people online to help. It amplifies the cautionary tales shared by young people online and supports their modes of self-regulation. But it cannot prevent harm on its own. Inge van Schipstal was a junior researcher and former coordinator for ChemicalYouth project. Trained as an urban sociologist with a liking for ethnography, she studied the social aspects of drug use among young adults. Her focus was on processes of social bonding, collective action, and the intention that precedes drug use. She observed a gradual transformation from recreational, hedonistic intentions toward more profound goals of self-realization and collective evolution, wherein socialities continue to play a major role Fig. Moritz Berning focused on mixing classical and virtual ethnographies, trying to balance the limitations that come with each approach. For the ChemicalYouth project, he explored ways that risk is approached and dealt with, in regard to old and new psychoactive substances. These could be situational practices at festivals or clubs, as well as refined social mechanisms of testing substances in virtual spaces Fig. Swasti Mishra is an anthropologist with an interest in the intersection of health, drugs, biomedicine, and society. She completed her PhD under the ChemicalYouth project. Her doctoral research focused on the generation and circulation of knowledge regarding psychedelic drugs, ranging from clinical trials, psychiatric practices, and public health centers, and non-medical use in office spaces or festival venues, primarily situated in the United States and the Netherlands. She is currently part of a research project on the assessment of public health emergency preparedness across the European Union Framework contract with European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control Fig. Hayley Murray is a medical anthropologist, drug researcher, and project coordinator of the ChemicalYouth project. She is energized by talking to young people about their substance use and has had the privilege to do so with recreational drug users in the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, and the United Kingdom. Her contribution to the ChemicalYouth project was her fieldwork in the Dutch music festival scene, where she explored how recreational drug users perceive, manage, and legitimize the risks and harms related to their drug use in a festival setting. This project reflects her interests in harm reduction and risk practices Fig. Lia Amelia was a researcher for the ChemicalYouth project who conducted research on alkyl nitrites poppers use among middle-class teenagers in Makassar. She is a student at Hasanuddin University. Amelia, L. Poppers: Sex after clubbing among middle class adolescents in Makassar Unpublished report. Hasanuddin University. Google Scholar. Berger, F. The history, chemistry, and pharmacology of Carisoprodol. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 86 1 , 90— Article Google Scholar. Berning, M. Educated guesses and other ways to address the pharmacological uncertainty of designer drugs: An exploratory study of experimentation through an online drug forum. 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Review of pharmaceutical self: The global shaping of experience in an age of psychopharmacology. Transcultural Psychiatry , 49 3—4 , — Herzberg, D. Blockbusters and controlled substances: Miltown, Quaalude, and consumer demand for drugs in postwar America. Hofmann, A. Safety of a peanut oral immunotherapy protocol in children with peanut allergy. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology , 2. Hunt, G. Drug use and meanings of risk and pleasure. Journal of Youth Studies, 10 1 , 73— Idrus, N. Experimental trajectories of young users of psycho-active prescription drugs in urban Indonesia. Journal of Extreme Anthropology, 3 2 , 72— Ikatan Sarjana Farmasi Indonesia. Aplikasi mobile katalog iso informasi spesialite obat pt. Lovell, A. Addiction markets: The case of high-dose buprenorphine in France. Petryna, A. Kleinman Eds. Lyng, S. Edgework: A social psychological analysis of voluntary risk taking. American Journal of Sociology, 95 4 , — Measham, F. Probation Journal, 51 4 , — Medawar, C. Medicines out of control? Antidepressants and the conspiracy of goodwill. Groningen: Aksant. Mithoefer, M. The Lancet Psychiatry , 5 6 , — Monshouwer, K. Het grote uitgaanonderzoek Trimbos Instituute. Moore, K. Young people, dance and the sub-cultural consumption of drugs. Nutt, D. Drug harms in the UK: A multicriteria decision analysis. The Lancet, , — Olsen, H. Carisoprodol elimination in humans. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 16, — Parrott, A. Pilkington, H. International Journal of Drug Policy, 18 3 , — Quintero, G. Generation RX: Anthropological research on pharmaceutical enhancement, lifestyle regulation, self-medication and recreational drug use. Erickson Eds. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Chapter Google Scholar. Rakhmat, M. Drug use among Indonesian children is pervasive. International Policy Digest. Reeves, R. Carisoprodol: Abuse potential and withdrawal syndrome. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 3 1 , 33— Reneman, L. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 16 8 , — Riley, S. Young, 18 1 , 33— Drug abuse warning network US. Tone, A. New York: Basic Books. Drugs En Uitgaan. Uitermark, J. A clash of policy approaches: The rise and fall? International Journal for Drug Policy, 16, 65— United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World drug report Van Schipstal, I. Harm reduction from below: On sharing and caring in drug use. How to make your own drug supply. Wardman, J. The Constitution of risk communication in advance liberal societies. Risk Analysis , 28 6 , — Yeom, M. The reform of secondary education in Indonesia during the s: Basic education expansion and quality improvement through curriculum decentralization. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3 1 , 56— Zinn, J. Social theories of risk and uncertainty: An introduction. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Book Google Scholar. Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Anita Hardon. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Chemical Highs. In: Chemical Youth. Critical Studies in Risk and Uncertainty. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Published : 14 October Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Print ISBN : Online ISBN : Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Download book EPUB. Chemical Youth. Download book PDF. Self-Regulation in Amsterdam Our interlocutors in Amsterdam confronted uncertainty about the contents of recreational pills and powders, by acquiring them from friends and trusted connections. Full size image. Warnings on billboard in a popular nightlife area. Dosing GHB with a syringe. Table 2. Changing Regulatory Regimes Thus far, our discussion of self-regulation has focused on the most common recreational chemicals found in the field. Co-Creating Harm Reduction How to reduce the harm caused by the ever-changing drug use practices of youth? In Conclusion Focusing on chemical practices generates insights into how youth appropriate diverse chemicals to feel good and how they seek to mitigate harm. ChemicalYouth Ethnographers Inge van Schipstal was a junior researcher and former coordinator for ChemicalYouth project. Inge van Schipstal. Moritz Berning. Swasti Mishra. Hayley Murray. References Amelia, L. Google Scholar Berger, F. Article Google Scholar Berning, M. Article Google Scholar Bramness, J. Article Google Scholar Celebrate Safe. Google Scholar DEA. Article Google Scholar Ecks, S. Article Google Scholar Feduccia, A. Article Google Scholar Hardon, A. Google Scholar Healy, D. Article Google Scholar Hofmann, A. Article Google Scholar Idrus, N. Google Scholar Lyng, S. Article Google Scholar Measham, F. Article Google Scholar Medawar, C. Google Scholar Mithoefer, M. Article Google Scholar Nutt, D. Article Google Scholar Olsen, H. Article Google Scholar Parrott, A. Article Google Scholar Pilkington, H. Article Google Scholar Quintero, G. Chapter Google Scholar Rakhmat, M. Article Google Scholar Reneman, L. Article Google Scholar Riley, S. Google Scholar Trimbos-Instituut. Article Google Scholar Vice. Google Scholar Yeom, M. Article Google Scholar Zinn, J. Book Google Scholar Download references. About this chapter. Cite this chapter Hardon, A. Copy to clipboard. Publish with us Policies and ethics. Search Search by keyword or author Search. 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