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The purpose of this article is to present a new distributed interactive career decision-making framework di CDM in which person and context together determine the development of a sustainable career. We build upon recent theories from two disciplines: decision theory and career theory. Our new conceptual framework incorporates distributed stakeholders into the career decision-making process and suggests that individuals make decisions through a system of distributed agency, in which they interact with their context to make each career decision, at varying levels of participation, from proactive to reactive. This manuscript challenges the individual-driven approach to career development, and instead proposes that a process of distributed career decision-making takes place between each person and the various stakeholders, both individual and institutional, that also drive their career. Empirical research is needed to explore and test the applicability of the framework to career decisions in practice. Developing sustainable careers in response to a changing work environment is a major challenge of the 21st century De Vos and Van der Heijden, ; Lawrence et al. However, from the late 20th century, academics noticed that career patterns were changing, and career frameworks began to emphasize the central role of personal agency in planning and guiding the career trajectory, suggesting that individuals had the ability to shape their own protean careers Hall, and to move between jobs and organizations in boundaryless careers Arthur, , in a process of proactive career self-management King, ; Greenhaus et al. Yet, as 21st century employment becomes increasingly volatile DiRenzo et al. Construction theory proposes that individuals subjectively co-construct the meaning of their careers in conjunction with their career context Savickas et al. Recent research has also emphasized the influence of the ecosystem of broad contextual factors on career choices, including society, institutions and the macro-economy Mayrhofer et al. An approach to career development based on career adaptability has been advocated to enable the individual to address the changing demands of the career context Krieshok et al. The literature addressing sustainable careers emphasizes the shared responsibility of individual and context, as set out in the seminal conceptual model of De Vos et al. The authors propose that the three dimensions of a sustainable career are the person , whose characteristics are agency and meaning, the context , composed of both institutional and private stakeholders, and time , which introduces change and events. They suggest that the outcomes of sustainable careers are happy, healthy, and productive workers Van der Heijden, ; De Vos et al. In order to support practical career counseling, career decision-making research has often aimed to provide a normative process setting out how individuals should make career decisions, as we discuss in this section. There are different perspectives on the extent of conscious control and rational, deliberative analysis that individuals employ in making a decision. At one end of the spectrum, rational choice theories March, ; Mellers et al. These theories underpin the trilateral model of career decision-making, according to which decisions are made through a combination of intuition, reason, and engagement with the career context Krieshok et al. Nevertheless, we argue that by incorporating the context in the form of external supports, barriers and influences, rather than as explicitly causal interacting determinants, the SCCT still omits part of the decision-making process. Earlier models which focus on interactions with the career context include the dynamic interactional career development model Vondracek et al. Current frameworks situate individual decision-making within its broader career context, addressing interactive issues such as work-family decision-making Driver, ; Powell and Greenhaus, ; Schooreel et al. Specifically, in the model by Powell and Greenhaus , the individual makes the decision alone, whilst taking family considerations into account at each of the four decision-making stages. In addition, building explicitly upon that manuscript, Schooreel et al. In a similar way, Guest and Rodrigues emphasize the influence of the context on career decisions, but they locate personal control at the center in their model of career control. Placing a greater emphasis upon the influence of the context on career trajectories, Forrier et al. Finally, Tomlinson et al. Yet, ultimately they present career decisions as made by the individual. Contextual participation in decision-making goes beyond the collective agency exercised by a group of individuals with similar intentions Bandura, , and extends to actors working together, but with potentially differing perspectives. This approach, whereby agentic social units co-operate across actors and activities Enfield and Kockelman, , can be termed distributed agency. Distributed agency is a recently developed concept which applies to agents acting in organizations and complex situations, where the actions and intentionality of multiple agents combine to produce a collective outcome. Multiple decision-making agents, who contribute to a specific decision, can be termed a decision-making unit DMU , and are acting within a distributed decision-making process Schneeweiss, Distributed agency thus enables decision-making to be distributed across actors and activities, for example, the distributed decision-making which takes place in situations ranging from big business problem-solving and disaster management Schneeweiss, ; Treurniet and Wolbers, , to doctor-patient consultations Rapley, We argue that there is a need to integrate the existing career decision-making models discussed above, by situating decision-making within the uncertain, but often deterministic, career context which jointly drives the process of distributed decision-making. De Vos et al. The distributed career decision-making process is based upon a system of distributed agency Enfield and Kockelman, , as discussed in the section on theory above. To account for the different levels of agentic influence in any given decision outcome, we propose that the proactive participation by each participant will vary from one career decision to the next, and that the level of participation of each decision-maker will be determined both by objective structures, such as organizational hierarchy, and subjective motivations, for example, the level of engagement of the various distributed decision-makers with the specific decision. Our new framework introduces the concept of distributed decision-making to career decisions to explain how both person and context interact with intentionality in making sustainable career decisions. The di CDM framework presented here see Figure 1 focuses on the multiple agents taking part in the career decision-making process. Supplementary Appendix 1 illustrates how our framework can be applied to career decisions over the course of a fictional career. Figure 1. A Sustainable distributed interactive career decision-making framework. The person is the first dimension of a sustainable career identified by De Vos et al. Individuals exercise agency in the process of career self-management King, and goal setting Latham and Locke, An individual employs their agency to fulfill a range of psychological needs, which consequently become salient in their career choices, including the need for self-determination and connection to others Duffy et al. Inaction in careers Verbruggen and De Vos, can also be explored from the perspective of the presence or absence of agentic decision-making. A useful starting-point to operationalize personal agency in career decision-making could be the definition and measurement of career control Guest and Rodrigues, , combined with objective facilitating factors such as accumulated career capital, defined as the development, over time, of key career competencies, which have been identified by Arthur et al. Collective agency Bandura, denotes when a group of people work together to achieve a goal. We develop this perspective in the section on context below. Sustainable careers have been described as linking individual agency and personal meaning Van der Heijden and De Vos, Meaningful work has been widely discussed and operationalized in the career literature. In particular, people are motivated to work to gain the intrinsic rewards of pursuing a broader life purpose, and work can be a way in which people find or actively create meaning and fulfillment in their lives Steger et al. They often derive multiple social and other benefits from the work environment, which address their need for relatedness Ryan and Deci, and social connection Duffy et al. A career can afford meaning and purpose by providing objectives, such as the pursuit of ambitions Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller, Meaning in a career may be created in a process of retrospective sense-making Weick, ; Wrzesniewski et al. Sense-making also informs career narratives in career research as participants may selectively omit inconsistencies to construct a coherent narrative Wolf, However, a calling can be a double-edged sword Lysova et al. We add to this identification of individual agency and argue that the person makes decisions in conjunction with a distributed network of active agentic decision-makers within the wide career context, to which we now turn. The context is the second dimension of a sustainable career as identified by De Vos et al. We conceptualize the context, as well as the person, from an agentic perspective, that is, we attribute intentionality to various agents in the broader career ecosystem, who therefore contribute proactively to each career decision. Not only does it encompass broad distal influences, such as political and legal systems, but also, more specifically, it includes proximal influences, which play an active role in decision-making. These characteristics represent two key aspects of the context: the embodied demands of other individuals e. A sustainable career enables individuals to continue to earn their living over time and to benefit from social interaction, fulfilling the basic needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness Ryan and Deci, Individuals are motivated to protect and build their resources, for example, their energy, their self-esteem, and their social status, in order to enhance the positive reinforcement that they experience from their environment, and to avoid stress caused by the loss of these resources, according to the Conservation of Resources theory COR Hobfoll, If demands and resources are not balanced over time, i. Scripts are schemata shared by a group of people which guide their behavior over the course of a standardized series of events Schank and Abelson, ; Gioia and Poole, Career scripts are a specific form of script which structure expectations about the development of careers Dany et al. Scripts can be acquired by selecting role models through observing the career trajectories of reference groups Grote and Hall, We suggest that scripts are not static but develop over time as individuals collectively and proactively interact with the career context, thus creating new scripts, in the same way as individuals co-construct their own career trajectories through discourse with, and activity within, the context Savickas et al. Scripts therefore reflect the collective agentic interests of multiple stakeholders, such as institutions, which use career scripts to structure their internal labor markets and motivate current and future employees, or family and friends, for whom scripts may embody lifestyle values and aspirations. Time is the third key dimension of a sustainable career identified by De Vos et al. To reflect this, our di CDM framework incorporates life and career stages which have been associated with individual changes over time. These may be based on chronological age Super, ; Levinson, but may also reflect a pattern of behaviors as an individual recycles through the family life cycle in a second marriage, or through career stages on changing jobs Super, ; Smart and Peterson, Subjectively, over time, in a process of sense-making, individuals create coherent past career narratives to underpin their identity and create meaning in their work, and in turn, these may influence their future decisions Del Corso and Rehfuss, ; Wrzesniewski et al. Happenstance emerges naturally and chaotically over time from a dynamic environment Bright and Pryor, ; Bright et al. Over time, chance events, over which the individual has no control, can be core influences on individual lives Bandura, ; Grimland et al. Akkermans et al. Recent work highlights the effect of early positive and negative career shocks on career sustainability Blokker et al. The 21st century workers are neither in control of their careers, nor are they passive laborers: they are negotiators, interactively developing their own career trajectories in a shifting multilateral relationship with stakeholders with different agendas, who may be collaborative, antagonistic, or simply demanding, and who occupy different positions within different contextual structural hierarchies. Our focus on distribution and interactivity as essential mechanisms in the decision-making process therefore addresses the question as to the extent to which individuals perceive that they exercise, or are perceived to exercise, agency in their own career decisions. In order to assess and operationalize the level of participation in each career decision, the di CDM framework proposes that each distributed decision-maker participates at a level which can be envisaged on a continuum of interactive decision-making participation; this continuum ranges from primarily proactive decisions, whereby the decision-maker exercises almost complete autonomy, to primarily reactive decisions in response to other stakeholders in the career context. We therefore propose that for each decision, each agent in the network of distributed decision-makers will have greater or lesser input into the outcome, which could be operationalized as ranging from 0 to 1, in other words from no agentic input to complete decision-making autonomy; for measurement purposes this could be based on levels of input reported by the stakeholder and triangulated by the other participants in the decision. Proactive personality has been described as a stable trait of a person who takes the initiative and creates positive change in his or her environment, relatively unconstrained by their situation Seibert et al. We suggest that proactive behavior may be exercised by any agent, at any point along the career trajectory in the career decision-making process, depending on their circumstances and engagement with the particular decision. Proactive decision-makers exercise agency in implementing plans to pursue meaning by thoughtfully researching and selecting their role and employer, or by job crafting Plomp et al. Individuals can even proactively manage their career timetables, for example, by studying for qualifications to bring forward a promotion, or later they may proactively choose their retirement date, as their priorities change, for example, when they become grandparents Bailyn, Last but not least, career inaction can also be a deliberative choice: the recognition of career desires may influence an individual to continue in the same role Verbruggen and De Vos, Perceptions of proactivity can be operationalized both as the control that individuals and stakeholders report that they exercise over their careers, but also by the career-enhancing behaviors in which they proactively participate, such as networking by the individual or the decision by the employer to provide training. Reactive decision-making responds to the context and this approach leads the individual to acquiesce to the demands made by people and organizations in their wider career context and to accept contextual scripts, norms and expectations. Ultimately, individuals have no choice in some decisions which determine their career trajectory, such as redundancy, which are imposed on them by an external hierarchy, such as that of their employer. Individuals may choose to adopt the roles suggested by their environment, for instance, when they follow an expected script and choose a career to fit with family or ethnic group values and expectations Lee et al. Furthermore, individuals react over time to changes in the economic, political, and technological context Lone et al. Individuals may be reactive because they do not have clarity about their career goals or paths, instead passing through a mist of indecision Suzuki and Kato, In certain circumstances, passive acceptance of the current norms can be disadvantageous, for example, if workers do not actively update their skills, they may be rendered obsolete as technology reconfigures job content and therefore job requirements Frey and Osborne, We argue for the need to redefine the context as an active driving force for career decisions within a system of distributed career decision-making, such that when the person is reactive there is, with the exception of chance events arising through happenstance, usually a corresponding active decision-maker within the broader career context, for example, a colleague, a family member, or a more abstract agentic force, such as family expectations or institutional demands. In addition, most decision-making will be multilaterally interactive and distributed between stakeholders, as discussed below. Whilst we employ the concepts of proactive and reactive to identify the two ends of the continuum, most decision-making is distributed and interactive. Interactive decision-making is reciprocal and iterative, so interactive decision-makers both shape, and are shaped by, their career context. In a similar vein, career construction theory Savickas et al. To sustain a career in a dynamic workplace, career adaptability is an essential interactive skill Fugate et al. To sustain their careers, workers will need to adopt an interactive approach to the career context and grasp opportunities which arise Mitchell et al. This manuscript presents a new distributed interactive career decision-making framework di CDM based on an interdisciplinary perspective on career sustainability, which applies recent developments in decision theory and theories of career sustainability to understand the mechanisms underlying sustainable career decision-making. We have discussed the key approaches to decision-making in the current literature, including the latest research on distributed agency and distributed decision-making theory, which we have applied to career decision-making. We have also reflected on the extant literature on sustainable careers and career decision-making, and we build upon recent research into the contextual influences on careers to argue that current models of career decision-making continue to be overly agentic, in that they present the individual as the sole decision-maker driving the career trajectory. We argue that, whilst contextual influences and happenstance have been researched in the recent literature, they have hitherto been included in the career decision-making models as external influences, affordances, constraints, or barriers to the individual decision-maker. In other words, there has been no unifying model which integrates the input of other members of the DMU, ranging from institutions and organizations to family members, into individual career decisions. In contrast, our model integrates the contextual stakeholders into the decision-making process as members of the DMU, who participate as multiple agents in a system of distributed decision-making. Our model also addresses the level of active input, by each stakeholder, into any given decision, along a continuum ranging from proactive to reactive participation, and thus we incorporate the option of each stakeholder to exercise their agency to a greater or lesser degree within the decision-making process. We have set out how our systemic approach to career development differs from the individual-focused approach in the career literature, according to which the key career driver is the person, and the role of the context is to provide supports and barriers to the chosen career trajectory. We build instead upon recent work on the shared responsibility between person and context emphasized in the sustainable career literature. To account for the role of the diverse agents, we propose that their level of participation in each career decision varies along a continuum from proactive to reactive, as circumstances vary. We suggest that the primary added value of this manuscript is to make a contribution to theory Colquitt and Zapata-Phelan, by applying recent concepts from the decision-making literature to provide a new distributed interactive understanding of career decision-making, and to integrate the phenomenon of decision-making into the sustainable career literature. Career advisors need to recognize that careers are less under rational individual control than the literature traditionally suggested Arthur, ; Arthur et al. Instead of job matching Parsons, ; Holland, , which in a rapidly changing work context may be only short-term, or making superficially rational choices between pre-determined longer-term career scripts Laudel et al. A counselor who seeks to provide support for a sustainable career needs to be able to help the individual to think through the different driving forces in their lives at any given point, to recognize affordances, that is, action possibilities, in their career context Krumboltz, , and to reflect on where and when it is important or even possible to drive the decision-making process, and when it is advantageous to allow it to be driven by the agentic decision-makers in the career context. Finally, as we highlight the role of stakeholders in the wider career context Baruch and Rousseau, , we also highlight the responsibility of macroeconomic decision-makers such as governments and organizational decision-makers such as managers, to act as proactive stakeholders to support sustainable careers, for example through legislation, and to reduce constraints, for instance, by means of flexible HR practices. As this is a new conceptualization of career decision-making, it first needs to be explored qualitatively, for instance through individual interviews, to ascertain its relevance to different types of individual career and career decisions. Research needs to operationalize the concept of distributed decision-making in such a way that the inputs of the range of potential decision-makers can be captured, so a wide range of stakeholders DMU in a decision Schneeweiss, , can be interviewed, to triangulate the results and compare whether all participants have the same perspective about who made each decision. After initial qualitative exploration, larger-scale quantitative surveys could explore the level of control that individuals reported that they exercised in a recent key career decision, building on research by Guest and Rodrigues Research would be useful into the decision-making styles of workers in careers with high turnover and low sustainability in the gig economy Petriglieri et al. To check generalizability, it would be useful to explore a wide socio-demographic range of participants, for example, older workers and millennials; workers at different family life cycle stages, including second families; and respondents from deprived social groups. Sustainable careers and decision-making could also be researched in different employment conditions, such as amongst low-paid workers, entrepreneurs and gig economy workers. A key question to explore for career development today is: to what extent is it possible to develop sustainable careers proactively, employing, for example, the agentic approach of the intelligent career Arthur et al. Questions could be asked regarding decisions when workers exercised different levels of control and engagement Guest and Rodrigues, It would be useful to explore whether any common factors can be identified in relation to career sustainability in terms of personality, circumstances or proactive or reactive decision-making styles, so personality tests could be used to ascertain which participants were naturally more proactive or control-seeking Seibert et al. It would be useful to find out if there is any relationship between perceived success in careers, objective or subjective, Grimland et al. The extent to which stakeholder participation in decision-making can affect the success of career outcomes can be researched from an interactivity perspective, building on organizational studies and work-family literature. Different age groups could be studied simultaneously or one group could be studied longitudinally using a person-centered research method Laursen and Hoff, ; Morin et al. Finally, in the current hybrid working conditions introduced by the Covid pandemic, our model could be helpful in exploring changes in decision-making during times of increased proactive involvement of government in individual and organizational decision-making. In particular, it could serve as an example of a previously distal influence becoming a proactive stakeholder in decisions such as whether to work from home, and even whether a sector of the economy e. Furthermore, research has already found that women have taken on greater childcare responsibilities during the pandemic Clark et al. It would also be useful to explore whether the altered working conditions have changed perceptions and attitudes for the future in an envisaged post-pandemic labor market. This manuscript contributes to our understanding of sustainable career decision-making from a distributed interactive perspective. We propose a distributed interactive career decision-making framework di CDM in which the career decision-making process is a system of agentic interactions, both individual and collective, between individuals and multiple stakeholders in their career context, that repeats interactively through time. The di CDM framework sets out how personal drivers exercising agency and seeking meaning interact reciprocally with contextual drivers making demands on resources and affording scripts , all of which are influenced by happenstance, as chance events arise over time. We thus argue that career decisions are made, not by one individual alone, but through the interaction between person and career context over time, in a system of distributed agency. This distributed agency in turn enables distributed decision-making, whereby the person and contextual stakeholders interact multilaterally to participate in each decision to a greater or lesser degree. Our focus on distributed decision-making interactivity contributes to the concept of shared influence over, and therefore shared accountability for, sustainable careers. We further suggest that the level of participation in each decision by any agent will vary from one decision to the next, depending upon their circumstances and level of subjective engagement, along a continuum from proactive to reactive participation, and we discuss how this might be measured. We have suggested possible applications of our framework and made recommendations for future research. HH proposed the original study and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 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The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Hallpike Kingston. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. Introduction Developing sustainable careers in response to a changing work environment is a major challenge of the 21st century De Vos and Van der Heijden, ; Lawrence et al. Theories of Decision-Making and Sustainable Career Choice In order to support practical career counseling, career decision-making research has often aimed to provide a normative process setting out how individuals should make career decisions, as we discuss in this section. A New Distributed Interactive Career Decision-Making Framework for Sustainable Careers Our new framework introduces the concept of distributed decision-making to career decisions to explain how both person and context interact with intentionality in making sustainable career decisions.

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