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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. In forensic investigations, forensic intelligence is required for illicit drug profiling in order to allow police officers and law enforcements to recognize crime developments and adjust their actions. In the present paper, we propose a novel framework for Digital Forensic Drug Intelligence DFDI by fusing digital forensic and drug profiling data through intelligent cycles, where a targeted and iterative collection of evidence from diverse sources is a core step in the process of drug profiling. Drug profiling data combined with digital data from seized devices collected, examined, and analyzed will allow authorities to generate valuable information about illicit drug trafficking routes and manufacturing. Such data can be stored in seized illicit drug databases to build in an intelligent way, all findings, hypotheses and recommendations, allowing law enforcement to make decisions. Our framework will potentially provide a better understanding of profiling, trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs. Out of NPS reported to be on the global market in , 87 were recently identified. In parallel, a methamphetamine market is developing in the Near and Middle East shown through an increase in seizures of the drug. Furthermore, illicit drug trade continues to hold back economic and social development, and constitutes a fundamental threat to security and stability in some parts of the world. Khat seized in Arabian Peninsula, North America, Europe, and Africa was the most seized plant-based NPS, followed by kratom found in Malaysia and Thailand, then ayahuasca, kava and Salvia divinorum in descending order. During Covid pandemic, illicit drug markets were resilient. Traffickers adapted to the pandemic context by changing their modes of transportation and trafficking. Since drug trafficking by air was entirely disrupted by restrictions imposed on air travel, there was an increase use of maritime routes to traffic heroin to Europe. However, with the pandemic and reduced air travel markets, demand moved toward other transported, inexpensive and advanced substitutes for heroin or diluted drugs with different and possibly hazardous chemicals. Looking at all the new approaches in illicit drug trafficking mentioned above, law enforcement faces several challenges related to illicit drug seizures. Thus, the implementation of novel methodologies is needed to prevent crimes related to illicit drugs and identify suspects involved in illicit drug manufacturing and trafficking. This paper firstly presents an overview of traditional process followed for seized illicit drugs profiling and discusses the information sought by traditional analysis, expected results and limitations. Following, we advocate the intelligent use of forensic data, different types of forensic intelligence and the application of forensic intelligence for drug profiling in different countries. Additionally, we highlight different steps in digital forensic investigations. Lastly, we propose a DFDI framework by fusing digital forensics and drug profiling data through intelligent cycles. As illustrated in Figure 1 , when illicit drugs are seized, crime scene officers start their analysis with presumptive tests, including indexing, photography, description and preliminary tests. Illicit drugs seized are subject to presumptive testing and physical and chemical profiling following various techniques. Copyright , Elsevier. Copyright Clearance Center License Following this, illicit drug profiling process combines physical profiling and chemical profiling. Generally, a correlation can be established between profiling data related to organic composition and physical characteristics. This was the case of seized MDMA tablets profiling where post-tabletting physical characteristics and pre-tabletting organic characteristics were relevant alone and combined together providing data about MDMA production and trafficking. Typically, due to the ease and accessibility of visual features, a visual inspection of a specimen is performed before any chemical analysis. Since our manuscript focuses on digital forensic intelligence and drug profiling, we will briefly mention some analytical techniques commonly applied for illicit drug chemical profiling. As discussed, traditional drug profiling requires numerous analytical systems, and the entire analysis procedure is usually expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, the approaches followed to extract features are fundamental for handling and contextualizing drug profiling information. Intelligence cycle is the process of converting raw information into finished intelligence applicable for policy makers and law enforcement in building judgements. The cycle begins with collecting traces or patterns transferred during an event of crime and ends with re-evaluation. This cycle starts with the collection of illicit drugs and ends with re-evaluation. Indeed, data can be collected from many sources crime scenes, witnesses, and reports then examined and evaluated in order to determine its validity and reliability and converts into information. Following, information is combined and connected to existing information already recorded and stored. The structured collection of information is continuously analyzed to add value, detect new patterns and test hypotheses. This phase is critical and its results add value to information, called intelligence. Finally, data must be continuously updated, and intelligence must be examined to determine its effectiveness. This includes feedback and continuous updates of memory. Indeed, intelligence is a common concept applied in many areas, and forensic science is one of them. By extracting pertinent facts for analysis, these raw data are selected, processed, and converted into evidence that may reconstruct a case or identify possible connections between instances to detect potential links between seizures. Forensic intelligence can be classified as tactical, operational or strategic depending on the background in which it is applied. No copyright clearance needed. Tactical intelligence reactive micro-level of forensic intelligence supports frontline enforcement officers to decide on special cases and is relevant to thorough investigations. Indeed, strategic intelligence is future-oriented and examines long-term solutions. In addition, at a strategic level, several connections may identify the transportation trends, circulation network or manufacturing route on national and international levels. Despite all that was mentioned, Ribaux et al. Such entities can be identified and integrated into special procedures of serial crime analysis to generate valuable and timely intelligence. Lastly, the integrity of forensic intelligence throughout investigation should be established. Hence, the viability of forensic intelligence production as well as its legitimacy and admissibility should be given critical attention. To ensure its legitimacy, there should be no doubt about the instruments that created forensic intelligence. Several official international entities aim to develop the forensic examination of seized illicit drugs. Illicit drug profiling differs between countries and organizations. For example, in Australia, Australian Federal Police AFP is the organization handling the import or export of illicit drugs seized across Australian borders. Based on AFP regulations, different drug characteristics are determined, including size, weight, color, logo, organic and inorganic impurities and adulterants. These profiles are incorporated into a database and compared to existing profiles in AFP to define relations among samples. They realized a match between a related sample inside seizures and unrelated samples among diverse seizures using correlation coefficients. On the other hand, in Europe, illicit drug trafficking is more complex since it requires cross-border approaches with various jurisdictions. Several European projects were concerned with drug profiling. Moreover, in Switzerland, illegal drugs are analyzed in different laboratories without having a centralized laboratory leading to a lack of harmonization since every laboratory has its own infrastructure and sample analysis requested by investigating magistrates. This analytical, statistical, and computerized approach could identify links between drug samples seized in different regional markets. Since categories of illicit drugs trafficked and itineraries followed are continuously developing, countries must work together in a combined and harmonized approach. The project allows national establishments to recognize security threats and attack organized crime groups engaged in illicit drug trafficking in the mentioned area. Another interesting drug intelligence approach when dealing with certain intelligence matters, is through the use of open-source intelligence OSINT. This approach employs public data in the process of generating forensic intelligence. In this paper, we suggested a new emerging unique approach of coupling digital forensic investigation and forensic intelligence of illicit drug profiling is essential in forensic investigations of seized illicit drugs. Hence, in this section, we discussed the general steps involved in digital forensic investigation, as illustrated in Figure 4. Digital forensic investigation begins with the identification of a crime or event and ends with the presentation. In case of illicit drug seizures, some seized evidence includes digital evidence items such as mobile phones, computers, hard drives, flash drives, memory cards, cloud sources, etc. Following a legal authorization for initial collection, digital evidence items are examined to extract data via the application of several digital forensic tools. These include filtering techniques, pattern matching and hidden data extraction. After examination, analysis of extracted information is realized through relational, functional or temporal analysis. Practically, forensic experts rely on multiple data visualization tools to facilitate the analysis of structured and unstructured data. Cellebrite Pathfinder Figure 5 and Oxygen Figure 6 are examples of common tools that allow data visualization by implementing artificial intelligence AI , data mining and machine learning. Furthermore, analyzing these data allows the reconstruction of past events and predicts plausible outcomes and crimes connected to illicit drugs. Moreover, identification and tracking of criminals involved in illicit drug manufacturing and trafficking are possible through chasing digital money trails. Investigators are challenged with massive volumes of data and digital evidence that necessitate filtering and analyzing. Cellebrite Pathfinder advances the investigation by means of AI to identify significant leads so that cases can be resolved quickly and more efficiently. In-depth analysis of communications, including all contacts, phone numbers, overall number of communications as well as their total duration and period, are achieved through oxygen forensic detective data analytics software. The final step of digital forensic investigation is presenting where digital data should be reported. Additionally, people involved in the drug supply chain, including the producer, trafficker, distributor, supplier, and user, can be identified through digital forensic investigation. Generally, intelligence and information accessible to be extracted from digital forensic data holdings are known as Digital Forensic Intelligence DFI. When conducting forensic investigations, it is critical to distinguish between digital evidence DE and digital forensic intelligence DFI. Indeed, digital evidence is a reactionary examination of what happened at a previous time, whereas digital forensic intelligence is a procedure of forward-viewing analysis to predict what might happen in future based on information retrieved from previous actions. In the present paper, in the context of illicit drug investigations, we suggested a new perspective of developing a DFDI framework, as illustrated in Figure 7. Drug profiling is realized in parallel to digital forensic investigation following the basic steps of identification, preservation, collection, examination, analysis and reporting. These validated data are then fused to generate evidence, presentations including a summary of key results digital and drug profiling , a comprehensive report and a factual basis for conclusions. However, the type of criminal target to investigate should be well defined before employing DFDI because the type of drug profiling case can significantly affect the analysis outcome. For example, if law enforcement is chasing smuggling routes, the analysis should focus on large-scale drug seizures to avoid drug samples diluted by local dealers. Consequently, the drug profile can strongly correlate to certain criminal groups responsible for smuggling illicit substances into the designed country. On the other hand, analysis of seizures from local distributors may provide valuable data for targeting suspected local clandestine laboratories. In parallel to digital forensic investigation, drug profiling is conducted where an initial collection step allows the classification of drugs of abuse based on their physical and chemical characteristics. This step will be followed by a fusion of data reported from digital forensic investigation with those conveyed from drug profiling and external resources. Certainly, this fusion consists of validating data based on drug profiling and re-evaluating data established on fusion with external databases. Furthermore, this step opens the door to a deeper analysis of linked data and conveys more insights into a global context. Findings further trigger a targeted data collection based on identified events. Additionally, an iterative approach of analysis refinement cycles might be conducted where the suspect data are re-examined and evaluated for other elements. The last step consists of evidence generation and presentations, including a summary of key results digital and drug profiling , a comprehensive report and a factual basis for conclusions. At an international level, different countries adopt diverse processes for evidence generation and presentation. Finally, a decisive conclusion can be achieved based on the framework we are suggesting through establishing a link between the hypothesized and real data. As mentioned earlier, over the past years, illicit drug analysis has focused mainly on harmonizing analytical techniques, including emerging instrumentations that provide untapped data. An additional challenge concerns the way these extracted data are integrated within a criminal justice system, especially in an international context of illicit drug trafficking. In the present paper, we have first overviewed briefly the traditional physical and chemical illicit drug profiling in a forensic context. Drugs with similar profiles can be different regarding the chain of production, trafficking pathway, supply and market distribution. Consequently, introducing new approaches for illicit drug profiling is required, and forensic intelligence application in this context is one efficient approach. Indeed, each new specimen is compared with existing data in an intelligence cycle and organized in a memory built upon earlier seizures or known origin ref. When processing illicit drug seizures for forensic intelligence purposes, several challenges should be addressed. Among these, the decision of data to be collected and the ability to profile drugs and store this information promptly are the main ones. Thus, for the first time, we suggested integrating an intelligence cycle for digital data processing and an intelligence cycle for drug profiling called DFDI, as presented in Figure 8. Indeed, in some illicit drug seizures, digital evidence is collected for further analysis through intelligence cycles alongside drugs. As revealed earlier, to enable data analysis, forensic experts use diverse tools integrating AI and machine learning. Through DFDI application, police can potentially gain detailed knowledge about the structure, manufacturing processes and organization of drug trafficking and organized crime groups. In addition, the geographical source of seizures can be determined through the extraction of locations where pictures of drugs were taken, and the operating clandestine laboratory can also be monitored. Moreover, appropriate information can be gathered to generate national and international drug databases allowing the monitoring of national and international drug trafficking in a timely and cost-effective manner. Furthermore, a better understanding of drug networks, user networks and dealer identification can be established. Besides, it may have several tangible benefits of related intelligence products such as threat assessments, situation reports and risk assessments. By applying DFDI, there is a chance to answer the interrogations of strategic, tactical, and operational intelligence and investigation requirements associated with illicit drug profiling and trafficking. DFDI may also allow a better understanding of the criminal activity in focus as a whole. Since international illicit drug trafficking and markets are constantly developing, international collaborations are needed through combined and harmonized approaches in order to identify security threats organized by criminals who are engaged in illicit drug trafficking. Moreover, interchange of drug-related intelligence between organizations would allow countries to profit from international police databases. This interchange of drug-related intelligence targets the full range of stakeholders involved, including forensic scientists, investigators, intelligence officers, managers and decision-makers. In summary, it is essential to deploy and test the proposed framework on real data. Some Algorithms may possibly be applied in the future to present our framework following AI guidelines. Fifty references covering years — with 36 peer-reviewed papers were included based on several factors including publisher, content and authors pioneers in the field of illicit drug analysis, digital forensic and forensic intelligence. The proposed framework is unique in comparison to those recommended by Morelato et al. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Box , United Arab Emirates. Find articles by Mayssa Hachem. Find articles by Rabeb Mizouni. Find articles by Ibtesam Mohammed Alawadhi. Find articles by Mohamad J Altamimi. Collection date Oct Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.
Digital forensic intelligence for illicit drug analysis in forensic investigations
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