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We use cookies to help our site work, to understand how it is used, and to tailor ads that are more relevant to you and your interests. By accepting, you agree to cookies being stored on your device. You can view details and manage settings at any time on our cookies policy page. I joined the University of Surrey in October My current research focuses on illicit and unregulated markets, and primarily on the following areas: i drug and illicit waste trafficking; ii commercial sex markets; iii organised crime and illicit markets. The same methodology - which involves the use of publicly available data and social network analysis to study illegal flows of goods across countries - was adapted to research the transnational trafficking of various waste types, such as end-of-life vehicles and e-waste. I was part of a research project led by Cardiff University and funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, which assessed how new technologies are influencing transnational organised crime. The study explored whether and how dark web markets are changing transnational trafficking flows by analysing online dark web market data and traditional offline trafficking flows. The results were published in Crime, Law and Social Change. My research on commercial sex markets, in collaboration with Dr Luca Giommoni Cardiff University , focuses on online communities of sex workers and their clients with the aim to understand the role of technology in commercial sex, the relationship between sex workers and their clients, and the risks associated with sex work. It explores how men who purchase sex in England and Wales understand and perceive the risks associated with buying sex, how past experiences and online interactions influence their perceptions of risk, and how changes in prostitution legislation may impact on their willingness to purchase sexual services and to report suspected cases of trafficking. My research on organised crime and illicit markets aims to understand how criminal groups involved in international drug trafficking activities adapt as a consequence of law enforcement interventions. I published an article in Global Crime on the impact of the targeting of key players by law enforcement on the structure, communication strategies, and activities of a drug trafficking network. The raw anonymised data and R code are available on my GitHub page. My wider research interests include: co-offending networks; social network analysis; counter-terrorism; organised crime; drug markets; commercial sex markets. The project will explore how men who purchase sex in England and Wales understand and perceive the risks associated with buying sex, how past experiences and online interactions influence their perceptions of risk, and how changes in prostitution legislation may impact on their willingness to purchase sexual services and to report suspected cases of trafficking. The project, led by Cardiff University and funded by the ESRC , investigated how new technologies are influencing transnational organised crime. The project was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. It started in and has now ended. Please see the UKRI website for a summary of the project and main outputs, and this blog post for an interview with Professor Levi. I welcome PhD applications on topics that deal with illicit and unregulated markets—particularly drug markets and commercial sex markets—and criminal networks. Other topics might also be of interest, in which case, please do get in touch with me. I teach on both research methods modules and criminology modules for both undergraduate and master students. There is a relative dearth of literature on both the effects of cross-border interdictions and the impact of different types of interventions on international drug trafficking. This study identifies the main trafficking routes for cocaine and heroin, along with comparing the disruptive effects induced by targeted and non-coordinated interventions. It adopts a social network approach to identify the routes along which cocaine and heroin are trafficked, and then simulates the impact of different interdiction strategies on these two trafficking networks. The findings indicate that targeting countries based on their respective positions in the networks, as opposed to on the basis of the quantity of drugs exchanged, is more likely to disrupt drug flows. More specifically, concentrating law enforcement resources on countries with several incoming or outgoing trafficking connections, or those countries that mediate between producer, transit and consumer countries, would appear to be particularly effective in this regard. Interventions focused on specific trafficking routes are also likely to be effective if these routes have high edge betweenness centrality scores. This study contributes to extant understanding on the vulnerability of cocaine and heroin international trafficking networks, and, moreover, demonstrates that empirically-driven strategies are potentially more effective at interdicting international trafficking than non-strategic and non-coordinated interventions. This paper investigates the impact of the targeting of key players by law enforcement on the structure, communication strategies, and activities of a drug trafficking network. Data are extracted from judicial court documents. The unique nature of the investigation - which saw a key player being arrested mid-investigation but police monitoring continuing for another year - allows to compare the network before and after targeting. This paper combines a quantitative element where network statistics and exponential random graph models are used to describe and explain structural changes over time, and a qualitative element where the content of wiretapped conversations is analysed. After law enforcement targeting, network members favoured security over efficiency, although criminal collaboration continued after the arrest of the key player. This paper contributes to the growing literature on the efficiency-security trade-off in criminal networks, and discusses policy implications for repressive policies in illegal drug markets. Illegal enterprise and social embeddedness theories have highlighted the importance of market forces and social factors, respectively, for analyzing organized crime and organized criminal activities. This paper empirically demonstrates the joint explanatory power of these respective theories in the case of the transnational trafficking of cocaine. It does so by conceptualizing transnational cocaine trafficking as a network of relationships among countries; a network whose structure reflects the actions of manifold organized criminal groups. The analysis utilizes exponential random graph models to analyze quantitative data on cocaine trafficking which are ordinarily difficult to capture in empirical research. The analysis presented focuses on a set of 36 European countries. The results yield insights into the nature of the relationship among economic incentives, social ties, geographic features and corruption, and how, in turn, this relationship influences the structure of the transnational cocaine network and the modi operandi of cocaine traffickers. Based on case studies and interviews, it appears that the transnational trafficking of various waste types follows distinct paths. However, this information only provides a partial view of the global waste trafficking network, as it has never been studied by combining all the known illegal flows of different waste types. To address this gap, we analysed data from the Basel Convention National Reports to reconstruct networks of countries that engaged in illegal exchanges of end-of-life vehicles, e-waste, or both between and Our findings suggest that the structure of these networks and the countries involved in the trafficking vary depending on the waste type, with some similarities. While there are a few reciprocal ties, illegal end-of-life vehicles and e-waste typically move in one direction between countries. Most illegal flows occur from the Global North to the Global South, but trafficking also takes place within each of these regions. This study analyses large-scale online data to examine the characteristics of a national commercial sex network of off-street female sex workers and their male clients to identify implications for public health policy and practice. We built the sexual network using reviews reported between January and December We then quantified network parameters using social network analysis measures. We found minimal disassortative mixing by degree between sex workers and their clients, and that a few clients and sex workers are highly connected whilst the majority only have one or few sexual contacts. Finally, our simulation models suggested that prevention strategies targeting both sex workers and clients with high centrality scores were the most effective in reducing network connectedness and average closeness centrality scores, thus limiting the transmission of STIs. Social network analysis SNA has proven its value in refining criminological concepts and theories to aid the understanding of social processes behind crime problems and to assist law enforcement agencies in enforcing crime. Social network methods and techniques have a great value for crime prevention as well. SNA can be adopted to study crime epidemics and gang-related violence to identify proper violence reduction strategies. Furthermore, the adoption of a network approach can help understand the etiology and dynamics of criminal groups and assess the implications of different disruption strategies, thus limiting network reorganization. This chapter discusses the network approach in criminology and its value for crime prevention. The problem of link prediction has recently received increasing attention from scholars in network science. In social network analysis, one of its aims is to recover missing links, namely connections among actors which are likely to exist but have not been reported because data are incomplete or subject to various types of uncertainty. In the field of criminal investigations, problems of incomplete information are encountered almost by definition, given the obvious anti-detection strategies set up by criminals and the limited investigative resources. In this paper, we work on a specific dataset obtained from a real investigation, and we propose a strategy to identify missing links in a criminal network on the basis of the topological analysis of the links classified as marginal, i. The main assumption is that missing links should have opposite features with respect to marginal ones. Measures of node similarity turn out to provide the best characterization in this sense. The inspection of the judicial source documents confirms that the predicted links, in most instances, do relate actors with large likelihood of co-participation in illicit activities. The low level of terrorist activity in Poland has not stopped it legislating in the wake of the recent terror attacks in Europe. The final section examines the types of contagion according to the categories set out in Chap. Recent years have seen a series of dramatic reforms of the Polish criminal justice system on the basis of the terrorist threat creating conditions for violations of the rights to liberty, privacy, and so on. This virtual special issue of The British Journal of Criminology has been prepared to coincide with the annual conference of the British Society of Criminology, hosted by the Department of Sociology and the Centre for Criminology at the University of Surrey. As it was probably inevitable in light of current events, discussions leading to the creation of this special issue largely revolved around the idea of crisis. In thinking about how criminological research has explored and interrogated recent ruptures and their impact on the world at large and on disadvantaged and marginalised constituencies, we intentionally and purposefully looked outward rather than inward, and the selection of papers you will find below reflects this approach. Brexit does not make an appearance; the Black Lives Matter movement, Covid and the refugee crisis do. We took the last word of the theme literally and made an effort to include papers that study contexts rarely featured in criminological debates, and explore the challenges faced by criminological theory when applied to countries from the Global South. Most of the papers we selected are fairly recent; somewhat counterintuitively, the two oldest focus on technology. The leap from studying the introduction of a computerised management information system to talking about the challenges and opportunities for criminology in the time of Big Data shows the strength and relevance of a discipline that has always strived to make sense of what is happening in the world around us in a critical and socially conscious manner. Drug cryptomarkets are a significant development in the recent history of illicit drug markets. Dealers and buyers can now finalize transactions with people they have never met, who could be located anywhere across the globe. What factors shape the geography of international drug trafficking via these cryptomarkets? In our current study, we test the determinants of drug trafficking through cryptomarkets by using a mix of social network analysis and a new dataset composed of self-reported transactions. Our findings contribute to existing research by demonstrating that a country's level of technological advancement increases the probability of forming trafficking connections on cryptomarkets. Additionally, we found that a country's capacity to police cryptomarkets reduces the number of trafficking connections with other countries. We also observed that trafficking on cryptomarkets is more likely to occur between countries that are geographically close. In summary, our study highlights the need to consider both online and offline factors in research on cryptomarkets. Law enforcement agencies rely on data collected from wire taps to construct the organizational chart of criminal enterprises. Recently, a number of academics have also begun to utilise social network analysis to describe relations among criminals and understand the internal organisation of criminal groups. However, before drawing conclusions about the structure or the organisation of criminal groups, it is important to understand the limitations that selective samples such as wire taps may have on network analysis measures. Electronic surveillance data can be found in different kinds of court records and the selection of the data source is likely to influence the amount of missing information and, consequently, the results. This article discusses the impact that the selection of a specific data source for the social network analysis of criminal groups may have on centrality measures usually adopted in organised crime research to identify key players. Drawing from publicly available reports, a specific multiple correspondence analysis identifies the most important associations among mafias, activities, and countries. The results show that the mafias concentrate in a few countries; drug trafficking is the most frequent activity, whereas money laundering appears less important than expected; a stable mafia presence is reported in a few developed countries mainly Germany, Canada, Australia, and the United States. Illicit drugs are trafficked across manifold borders before ultimately reaching consumers. However, there is contradictory evidence about its effectiveness, which is due, in part, to a paucity of information about how drugs flow across borders. This study uses a network approach to analyze international drug trafficking both to and within Europe, drawing on several perspectives to delineate the factors that affect how drug shipments move across borders. The analysis explicates how drug trafficking is concentrated along specific routes; moreover, we demonstrate that its structure is not random but, rather, driven by specific factors. In particular, corruption and social and geographical proximity are key factors explaining the configuration of heroin supply to European countries. This study utilises recent advances in statistical models for social networks to identify the factors shaping heroin trafficking in relation to European countries. First, it estimates the size of the heroin flows among a network of 61 countries, before subsequently using a latent space approach to model the presence of trafficking and the amount of heroin traded between any two given countries. Many networks, such as trade networks, are intrinsically weighted, and ignoring edge weights results in a loss of relevant information. Traditionally, the gravity model has been used to predict legal trade flows, assuming conditional independence among observations. More recently, latent space position models for social networks have been used to analyze legal trade among countries, and, mutatis mutandis, can be applied to the context of illegal trade to count both edge weights and conditional dependence among observations. These models allow for a better understanding of the generative processes and potential evolution of heroin trafficking routes. This study shows that geographical and social proximity provide fertile ground for the formation of heroin flows. Opportunities are also a driver of drug flows towards countries where regulation of corruption is weak. Mafia homicides are usually committed for retaliation, economic profit, or rivalry among groups. The variety of possible reasons suggests the inefficacy of a preventive approach. However, like most violent crimes, mafia homicides concentrate in space due to place-specific social and environmental features. Starting from the existing literature, this study applies the Risk Terrain Modeling approach to forecast the Camorra homicides in Naples, Italy. This approach is based on the identification and evaluation of the underlying risk factors able to affect the risk of a homicide. This information is then used to predict the most likely location of future events. By contrast, variables controlling for the socio-economic conditions of areas are not significantly related to the risk of homicide. Moreover, this study shows that, even in a restricted space, the same risk factors may combine in different ways, giving rise to areas of equal risk but requiring targeted remedies. These results provide an effective basis for short- and long-term targeted policing strategies against organized crime- and gang-related violence. A similar approach may also provide practitioners, policy makers, and local administrators in other countries with significant support in understanding and counteracting also other forms of violent behavior by gangs or organized crime groups. Transnational crimes involve border crossings as an integral part of the criminal activity. They also include crimes that take place in one country with consequences that significantly affect other countries. Examples include human trafficking, smuggling arms, drugs, currency , sex slavery, non-domestic terrorism, and financial crimes. Transnational organized crime refers specifically to transnational crime carried out by organized crime syndicates. Although several encyclopedias cover aspects of transnational crime, it is this encyclopedia's emphasis on transnational justice, as well, that differentiates it from the pack. Not only do we define, describe, and chart the crimes and criminal activity, we also will include significant coverage of policing those crimes and prosecuting them within domestic and international court systems. Accessible and jargon-free and available in both print and electronic formats, the one-volume Encyclopedia of Transnational Crime and Justice will contain such entries as arms smuggling, art fraud, charity fraud, hacking and computer viruses, copyright infringement, counterfeiting, drug smuggling, extradition, human trafficking, intelligence agencies, international banking laws, Internet scams, Interpol, money laundering, pollution and waste disposal, price fixing, prosecution, sanctions, sex slavery, tax evasion, terrorism, war crimes, the World Court, and more. Several scholars recently investigated international drug trafficking using social network analysis Chandra and Joba ; Boivin These studies do not quantify the volume of drug flows among countries thus analyzing networks with binary links. This study estimates the size of the heroin flows from and to European countries. Then, it exploits recent advances in statistical models for social networks to identify the factors shaping heroin trafficking. It first assesses the influence of such factors on the presence of a link between any two countries. It then introduces the edge weights i. The methodology adopted allows for a better understanding of the generative processes and potential evolution of trafficking routes. The study shows that opportunity theory and social proximity are keys in explaining the direction and the size of heroin flows in Europe. Moreover, it demonstrates the benefits of including weights in the analysis of drug networks. Economic activities are distributed along a continuum whose extremes are criminal activities and completely legal ones. Between these two extremes lie several other possible ways in which organised criminals engage in activities that are formally legal yet organised and managed illegally. Attention has been recently paid to legal businesses and their exploitation by criminal organisations, and to the drivers of criminal infiltration in legal businesses, including concealment of illegal activities, profit through fraud, and control of the territory. The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice is an international, comprehensive reference tool for the field of Criminology and Criminal Justice that is both cutting edge as well as of very high scientific quality and prestige. This volume work provides a complete and systematic coverage of the field that is unprecedented. The Encyclopedia 'defines the field' through its choice of organization and entries. It identifies and brings emerging ideas and trends to the forefront. The Encyclopedia covers Criminology and Criminal Justice in ten broad areas, with leading researchers writing substantive contributions within their area of expertise:. The infiltration of organised crime in the legitimate economy has emerged as a transnational phenomenon. This book constitutes an unprecedented study of the involvement of criminal groups in the legitimate economy and their infiltration in legal businesses, and is the first to bridge the research gap between money laundering and organised crime. It analyses the main drivers of this process, explaining why, how and where infiltration happens. Part I explores the infiltration of legitimate businesses to conceal and facilitate illicit trafficking. Part II examines the infiltration of legitimate businesses to develop fraud schemes. Part III focuses on the infiltration of legitimate businesses to control the territory and influence policy makers. Part IV concludes by considering the research and policy implications in light of these findings. Bringing together leading experts and detailed case studies, this book considers the infiltration of organised crime in legitimate business around Europe. It is an ideal resource for students and academics in the fields of criminology, economics and sociology, as well as private sector practitioners, public officials and policy makers. This chapter discusses the methodological challenges in defining, operationalising and measuring organised crime infiltration in legal businesses. It first reviews existing definitions and measures of organised crime; it then focuses on infiltration, outlining the differences with respect to the concepts of organised crime investments and money laundering. It discusses the strengths and the weaknesses of existing measures and methodological approaches e. Cookies We use cookies to help our site work, to understand how it is used, and to tailor ads that are more relevant to you and your interests. Manage settings Accept. Dr Giulia Berlusconi Lecturer. Personal website. My qualifications. Affiliations and memberships. Academic networks ResearchGate. Google Scholar. Research Research interests My current research focuses on illicit and unregulated markets, and primarily on the following areas: i drug and illicit waste trafficking; ii commercial sex markets; iii organised crime and illicit markets. Research projects Understanding risk in unregulated markets: the case of men who purchase sex. Supervision Postgraduate research supervision I welcome PhD applications on topics that deal with illicit and unregulated markets—particularly drug markets and commercial sex markets—and criminal networks. Teaching I teach on both research methods modules and criminology modules for both undergraduate and master students. DOI: Giulia Berlusconi Come at the king, you best not miss: criminal network adaptation after law enforcement targeting of key players , In: Global Crime 23 1 Routledge. Giulia Berlusconi Come at the king, you best not miss: criminal network adaptation after law enforcement targeting of key players , In: The Criminology of Carlo Morselli - Part I Routledge. Luca Giommoni, Giulia Berlusconi, G. Giulia Berlusconi Do all the pieces matter? Assessing the reliability of law enforcement data sources for the network analysis of wire taps , In: Global Crime 14 1 pp. Dainotto, London, Reaktion Books, , pp. Special issue on Crime and Security Networks 51 pp. Report to the European Commission. Picarelli eds.

COMMISSION ON NARCOTIC DRUGS TO HOLD THIRTY-NINTH SESSION IN VIENNA, 16-25 APRIL

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VIENNA, 15 April -- The illicit manufacture, traffic and abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants could well constitute the key drug-related problem of the future, according to one of several reports to be discussed by the United Nations principal policy-making body on drug control -- the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, during its forthcoming session which begins here tomorrow, 16 April, and ends on 25 April. The report points to recent evidence that particularly the availability, price, consumer preference and reduced risk of interdiction may give synthetic drugs the potential to become a global problem of a magnitude greater than that posed by the plant-based narcotics. The Commission, which will examine areas of progress and weakness in the implementation of existing drug control measures, has been called upon by the General Assembly to recommend appropriate adjustments of drug control activities where required. Among the specific questions on which the Commission may wish to make recommendations are strengthening cooperation on alternative development as a means of eliminating illicit drug trafficking, harmonizing national laws and regulations, implementing all provisions of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, promoting the training of drug control personnel and encouraging the involvement of non-governmental organizations and the private sector in drug abuse prevention efforts. Other issues which the Commission has been asked to consider are how to strengthen the fight against international criminal drug organizations, penalties to apply for drug trafficking-related offences such as money laundering and illegal arms trade, how to enforce controls of precursors and. The member Commission, which oversees the work of the UNDCP, will review during its forthcoming session an assessment of the status of international cooperation in drug control, which has been proposed by the Economic and Social Council as the theme for its high-level segment this year. In connection with the issue, the Commission will have before it a report by the Executive Director in which he further elaborates and refines recommendations submitted last year, on the basis of additional information from governments. The Commission has also been asked to give priority consideration on whether to convene an international conference on the question, taking into account international drug control priorities and resources, the financial and other implications of holding such a conference and ways and means to increase the implementation of existing international conventions and other instruments for cooperation on drug control. As it began to do last session, the Commission will again consider matters relating to demand reduction as a separate agenda item, under which it will discuss basic principles of drug abuse prevention and experience gained from a series of regional expert forums on demand reduction. It will also look at the world drug abuse situation. Reports on those subjects will be available along with a report on the UNDCP strategy for demand reduction and on a draft declaration on the guiding principles of demand reduction. In connection with drug traffic and supply, the Secretariat has prepared a report on the world-wide situation with regard to illicit drug trafficking and a note on the activities of the Commission's subsidiary bodies. According to one report before the Commission under this question, the global interdiction rate for cocaine is now significantly above that for heroin, reversing the pattern of the early s -- a development almost certainly due to greater law enforcement efforts. The report cautions, however, that the mechanisms of the illicit market are such that the impact upon the amount of cocaine reaching consumers is less significant. The General Assembly in adopted a resolution renewing its commitment to strengthening cooperation against the global drug problem, in which it called upon the Commission, with the support of the UNDCP and the cooperation of the International Narcotics Control Board INCB , to monitor and evaluate action on the national and international levels to implement. In that connection, the Executive Director convened two sessions of an ad hoc advisory group at Vienna in and submitted his recommendations to the Commission last year. In addition to the mandate given to it by the Commission, the advisory group commented on three additional issues: money laundering, the debate concerning the possible legalization of the non-medical use of drugs and a proposal to hold a second international conference on drug abuse and illicit trafficking. Among the proposals addressed concerned the functioning of the international drug control treaties, whether to hold a second international conference on drug abuse and illicit trafficking, implications of decriminalization and harm reduction policies, and funding of UNDCP activities. The UNDCP was created by the Assembly in to coordinate all United Nations drug control activities and providing effective leadership in international drug control. As one of its main topics of discussion, the Commission will review the work of the UNDCP in , on the basis of a report by the Executive Director of the Programme and other background documents. It states that the Programme has sought, through a balanced approach targeting both illicit traffic and demand, directly to support government efforts to combat the drugs problem, with emphasis on assisting countries in drawing up and carrying out national drug-control master plans and to strengthening the national institutions involved. The report states that by implementing a package of targeted technical cooperation programmes last year, the Programme promoted close cooperation between governments at the subregional level, particularly in order to counter cross-border trafficking. Subregional cooperation was one of the successful strategic initiatives. The long-term financial situation of the Programme remains, however, a matter of concern, according to the report. With the coming depletion of the fund and a decline in general-purpose funds -- which support the Programme's core activities -- the UNDCP is concerned that, unless current trends are reversed, it will not have sufficient resources to cover the basic needs of headquarters and the infrastructure costs for its field operations. Another concern is the apparent imbalance between the Programme's mandates and the resources available to implement them. Contrary to a growing spirit of collective responsibility for international drug control, some States remain, exclusively, recipients of UNDCP cooperation, while a handful of others bear the brunt of the financial burden. In order for the Commission to fulfil its mandate as governing body of the UNDCP, it should explore ways of encouraging States and other partners to consider themselves 'shareholders' in the Programme. The report recommends that increased consideration should be given to the idea of assessed contributions, even if based on the short-term commitment of as many countries as possible. In light of requests for innovative fund-raising approaches, the UNDCP last year worked to mobilize consortia to secure longer-range commitment of donors to specific programmes or thematic areas and continued to encourage countries receiving technical assistance to assume an increasing share of the financial burden. In connection with amphetamine-type stimulants, the Commission has before it a report which outlines the actions undertaken thus far by the UNDCP -- which was last year asked by the Economic and Social Council to convene expert meetings of regulatory and law enforcement authorities of interested governments in order to discuss how to combat illicit manufacture of such stimulants and the illicit use of their precursors. The report outlines the findings of a study which had been prepared by the UNDCP in consultation with the INCB for the first of the expert meetings -- held in February in Vienna -- at which 52 experts from some 26 countries and four organizations sought to identify the scope, nature and magnitude of the global stimulants problem. A second meeting, to be held later this year, will seek to recommend the necessary corrective responses. The study cited in the report examines the licit use of amphetamine-type stimulants as well as the developments that have led to their spread into the illicit market. One of the principal findings of the global review, confirmed in the expert report, is that the control system works well on the licit side of the picture, but on the illicit side it is far more limited, considering that the growth rate of the amphetamine-type stimulants over the past five years has surpassed the rates for cocaine and heroin. Such stimulants, the report states, provide the best historical evidence of the 'balloon effect'. In the case of plant-based narcotics, the cultivation and processing operations move from one geographical location to another to escape law enforcement. With synthetic drugs, restricting the licit supply in a market with constant demand merely leads to a shifting from licit to illicit manufacture, initially within the same country. Among the salient points which emerged at the February meeting is that in those countries being drawn into the global market, the principal limitation is a continuing emphasis on fighting plant-based narcotic drugs. While perfectly valid, that approach leaves little attention being given to synthetic drugs. The report stresses that more common ground has to be found in terms of both national compliance with existing regulations and the cooperation of industry. The Commission has before it a detailed report on illicit crops from which drugs are extracted and appropriate strategies for their reduction, which examines national and global eradication efforts and their impact on illicit cultivation. It also looks at the distinction between alternative development, on the one hand, and both crop substitution and more general economic development efforts on the other. The report states that over the last two decades, alternative development work in 11 countries by the UNDCP and its predecessors has led to an accumulation of relevant experience which is suitable for review. It outlines trends in hectarage of global illicit cultivation as well as strategies to reduce it. Also provided are a number of figures and tables, including a table of eradication estimates for 14 countries in and The last two decades have seen significant progress in developing an understanding of the dynamics of illicit crop cultivation and related drug control strategies, the report states. Experience has shown that some programmes have been effective in encouraging the growth of licit agricultural and other economic activities, while reducing the level of illicit cultivation in targeted areas. In discussing the question of demand reduction, the Commission will have five reports. One, concerning the state of knowledge in 'primary' and 'secondary' prevention, reviews the evidence available regarding those approaches to drug abuse prevention. Primary prevention includes public awareness campaigns, perinatal and pre-school interventions, in-school education, youth programmes and drug testing. Secondary prevention consists of reducing drug abuse through different forms of treatment and rehabilitation. The report states that evidence suggests that the efficacy of primary prevention is increasingly being called into question, while secondary prevention seems to be able to reduce demand, and result in abstinence, under some conditions. Although they have a high relapse rate, secondary prevention strategies have been shown by some studies to be cost-effective. A second report presents an overview of the experience gained from a series of UNDCP-organized regional expert forums on demand reduction. They provided an overview of the drug situation in the several subregions, as well as of existing demand reduction programmes and of the resources needed to carry them out. Emphasis was placed on the lack of reliable data on the nature and extent of drug abuse and on various drug abuse programmes. It was felt that treatment services should be designed for, and made more accessible to, persons in need of such services. The increasing social problems in all regions made the targeting of at-risk groups an important issue of any demand reduction programme. A further report provides data on the world drug abuse situation, including a number of graphs and tables. Most of the drug-related concerns emerging from the reports involve an almost continuous rise in drug abuse, its effect on prison and criminal justice systems, the spread of human immunodeficiency virus HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome AIDS as a result of abusing drugs by injection and the enormous human and financial costs resulting from drug abuse and the treatment of drug abusers. One growing problem in a number of countries is that the volume of people arrested. Another problem is the extent to which drugs are being abused inside prisons. The UNDCP's strategy for drug demand reduction is spelled out in another report of the Executive Director, who has identified three main objectives in that regard: to provide governments with relevant information for use in formulating drug-control policy; to identify effective methodologies and programmes for demand reduction in different socio-economic and cultural contexts; and to increase the effectiveness of measures undertaken at the national level. Implementation strategies are described for each objective. Also before the Commission will be a note containing a compilation of comments and proposals from governments and organizations for use in formulating a draft declaration on the 'guiding principles of reduction of illicit demand for drugs'. On the subject of illicit drug trafficking, the Commission has before it a report covering recent global trends in that area, in addition to a note on the work of the Commission's subsidiary bodies over the past year. The report on illicit trafficking outlines global trends in illicit drug trafficking from to , illustrated with a number of graphs. It notes that the dynamics of trafficking are such that even a one-third seizure rate does not cause a proportional reduction in consumption. Further investigation of issues relating to the interception of illicit drugs and the role it plays in reducing consumption and other drug-related problems may assist the Commission in its efforts to monitor adherence to the relevant provisions of the drug control treaties. The latter also covered Canada and the United States. The meetings took place in Kampala, Jakarta and Havana, respectively. In view of measures necessitated by the financial crisis of the United Nations, the meeting of the Subcommission on Illicit Drug Traffic and Related Matters in the Near and Middle East was postponed from 18 to 22 November to 9 to 13 March The Commission will review the implementation of the key international drug control treaties: the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, amended. This year's INCB Report notes 'enormous difficulties' faced by a number of countries in combating illicit drug abuse and trafficking. Among the problems highlighted in the Report are weaknesses in recently enacted anti-money laundering laws in some countries, continued large-scale cultivation of cannabis in several regions, the spread of cocaine abuse to west Africa and eastern Europe, increasing drug-related violence in previously less affected Caribbean countries and drug abuse due to the large-scale prescribing of attention deficit disorder remedies in the United States. Numerous examples of how global economic integration, opening borders and deregulation of trade are facilitating international drug trafficking are included. Also before the Commission is a report of the INCB on action taken by States to prevent the diversion of precursor chemicals from licit to illicit channels. Article 12 of the Convention recommends a wide range of actions States parties might take to strengthen controls of chemicals used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. The Board has recommended that exporting countries take steps to identify and investigate suspicious shipments and that importing countries provide feedback on specific cases so that the shipments in question can be stopped or seized. It has also called for further regulation of manufacture and domestic distribution in a number of countries in order to prevent internal diversion of chemicals, which are often subsequently smuggled to neighbouring countries where illicit manufacture of drugs takes place. The Commission is also scheduled to review action taken by the UNDCP to help States implement the recommendations of the working group on maritime cooperation which met in Vienna in to identify barriers to cooperation in the interdiction of drug traffic by sea and to recommend suitable remedies. Before the Commission in that regard is a report covering the recommendations of an expert group convened by the UNDCP from 27 to 29 February to advise on training and other forms of technical cooperation to improve governments' ability to carry out the relevant provisions of the Convention. Article 17 of the Convention provides for cooperation among States parties in identifying, boarding and searching suspicious ships, as well as in conducting whatever arrests and seizures might be called for. Annexed to the report is a proposed training curriculum for maritime drug law enforcement that would cover policy, strategy and law; training for managers in the development and execution of a coherent enforcement strategy; and applicable laws and agreements, including the law of the sea, the Convention and national laws. Welcome to the United Nations. Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. Press Release. Other issues which the Commission has been asked to consider are how to strengthen the fight against international criminal drug organizations, penalties to apply for drug trafficking-related offences such as money laundering and illegal arms trade, how to enforce controls of precursors and essential chemicals used in making illicit drugs, how to strengthen cooperation to eradicate the growing and dangerous links between terrorist groups, drug traffickers and their paramilitary gangs and ways to reinforce preventive strategies. Stimulant Study In connection with amphetamine-type stimulants, the Commission has before it a report which outlines the actions undertaken thus far by the UNDCP -- which was last year asked by the Economic and Social Council to convene expert meetings of regulatory and law enforcement authorities of interested governments in order to discuss how to combat illicit manufacture of such stimulants and the illicit use of their precursors. Crop Reduction The Commission has before it a detailed report on illicit crops from which drugs are extracted and appropriate strategies for their reduction, which examines national and global eradication efforts and their impact on illicit cultivation. Demand Reduction In discussing the question of demand reduction, the Commission will have five reports. Illicit Drug Trafficking On the subject of illicit drug trafficking, the Commission has before it a report covering recent global trends in that area, in addition to a note on the work of the Commission's subsidiary bodies over the past year. Precursors Also before the Commission is a report of the INCB on action taken by States to prevent the diversion of precursor chemicals from licit to illicit channels. Maritime Cooperation The Commission is also scheduled to review action taken by the UNDCP to help States implement the recommendations of the working group on maritime cooperation which met in Vienna in to identify barriers to cooperation in the interdiction of drug traffic by sea and to recommend suitable remedies. For information media. Not an official record.

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