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American racism and the lost legacy of Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, the father of plant neurobiology
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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Minorsky pminorsky mercy. These ideas were based on highly sensitive measurements he made of various plant functions by means of assorted ingenious instruments of his own design. Despite being the most internationally celebrated plant biologist of the early 20 th century, by the end of his life, Bose had become a scientific pariah whose work was expunged from Western histories of plant biology for nearly a century. The present contribution examines the motivating factors behind the anti-Bose camp in the United States in the s. We shall pass away, nations will disappear; Truth alone will survive, for it is beyond the reach of time and is eternal. Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose — , founder of the Bose Institute in Kolkata, is largely forgotten outside South Asia despite the fact that he was, a century ago, an international scientific celebrity whose lectures and demonstrations drew large audiences. Prominent men and women were seen perched upon the windowsills or even seated on the floor. Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, came long before the meeting started. But the crowd at the door was so large that he could not get within a half block of the hall. Numerous honors and prizes were bestowed upon him: he was knighted in , elected to the Royal Society in , and in , nominated to the League of Nations Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, an elite group of intellectuals, including Albert Einstein and Marie Curie, who were internationally regarded as possessing among the greatest minds of the era. In the case of the United States, the answer is not difficult to discern. Within the province of pure and applied physics, Bose was a pioneer in the fields of radio transmission and the application of semiconductors, but he is perhaps best remembered as being the first physicist to create microwaves in the laboratory and to characterize their properties. In , after a brief transition period, Bose shifted his research focus entirely to plant physiology, and for the last three decades of his career, the study of plant function consumed his scientific attention. During this brief transitional phase, Bose noted numerous similarities in the electrical responses of animals, plants, and oxidized metal wires that led him to hypothesize that all matter is alive. Mimosa pudica rapidly folds its leaflets when touched, and the folding response propagates down the leaf, each pair of leaflets closing in turn. C odariocalyx , on the other hand, exhibits a spontaneous oscillatory leaf movement in which the two, diminutive lateral leaflets of the trifoliate leaf alternately rise and fall with a periodicity of a few minutes: these movements reminded Bose of the beating of a heart. In studying these two species, both of which thrive in the warm climate of Bengal, Bose had an enormous advantage over his Western counterparts. First, both species can only be grown year-round in temperate climes in heated greenhouses. Greenhouses of a century ago were typically heated in cold weather by wheelbarrows of hot coal, the burning of which releases ethylene, a powerful gaseous plant hormone that reduces excitability. Many plants benefit from mutualistic associations between their root systems and specific strains of native soil fungi. One of the more common benefits of these mycorrhizal associations is that the soil fungi supply the plant with phosphate in exchange for carbohydrates. Thus, plants growing in foreign soil, and not in contact with their native strains of mutualist soil microbes, might be wanting in nutrients necessary for optimal excitability. Researchers have recently discovered, for example, that phosphate deficiency strongly dampens the increases in cytoplasmic calcium that are evoked by mechanical, salt, osmotic, and oxidative stress in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. By way of contrast, H. Bose, who had trained under Lord Rayleigh at Cambridge University, had an undeniable genius for the creation and perfection of measuring apparatus of exquisite sensitivity: he invented over 50 instruments for the study of plant physiology. It is impossible to give a full accounting of the dozens of inventions that Bose created to record plant autographs but a feature that almost all of them had in common was enormous magnification. In response to plant movement, the free end of the lever moved in close proximity to a small suspended magnetic needle bearing a small mirror. A beam of light was aimed at the mirror and as the magnetically deflected needle moved, the reflected beam of light moved across a screen. Bose was neither technically incompetent nor a fraud. In regard to APs, Bose was wrong in one respect: he thought that the APs of plants and animals were so similar that plants might serve as a useful model for testing pharmaceutical drugs. Biologists who emphasize the forms of life, of course, focus on the unique structure of the animal nerve cell which is without comparison in the plant world. There are other biologists, however, who by their training or inclination prefer to define nerve cells by their function, i. To simplify his pharmacological investigations, Bose established conditions whereby he could study the pulsations of isolated pulvini. He found that the immersion of isolated pulvini in water abolished the oscillatory movements but their occurrence could be restored by the addition of dilute hydrogen peroxide. Bose found that the leaflet oscillations of Codariocalyx were inhibited by general anesthetics, low oxygen, metabolic inhibitors and cold. None of these agents, however, are particularly specific. For example, two drugs, pilocarpine and atropine, which through their opposing actions on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in animal cells, have opposite effects on the beating of the heart, also had opposite effects on the pulsations of Codariocalyx see ref. Although many subsequent pharmacological and immunological studies seemed to confirm the idea that acetylcholine receptors were present in plants, especially in motor cells, 34 genomic data suggests that plants have no close homologs to animal acetylcholine receptor genes. This combination of positive pharmacological evidence coupled with negative genomic evidence is not a unique conundrum: Identical riddles arose during the search for GABA receptors and extracellular ATP receptors in plant cells. Subsequently, it was found that GABA receptors 35 and extracellular ATP 36 receptors do exist in plant cells and despite topographical and pharmacological similarities to their counterparts in animal cells, they are phylogenetically quite distinct from them: it is possible that the current plant acetylcholine receptor quandary may find a similar solution. Bose wondered whether the exceptionality of Codariocalyx leaflet movements lay not in the fact that they exhibit electrical oscillations but to the fact that their electrical oscillations are tightly coupled to leaflet movements: Is it possible that all plants demonstrate electrical oscillations and, if this is the case, in what tissues are these electric oscillations located, and what is their function? In order to determine the location of this hypothesized pulsating tissue, Bose advanced a fine-tipped extracellular electric probe by small increments into the stems and petioles of various plant species. He could detect no pulsatory activity at the epidermis but in each case as the probe reached a depth corresponding to the inner cortex, strong electrical oscillations could be recorded. Bose reported that the application of camphor, a heart stimulant whose cardio-pharmacological mode of action is poorly understood, to withered cut shoots greatly stimulated their re-erection. This was not news. According to modern conceptions of how water ascends the plant, the water in the conductive tissue of plants the xylem is under tension, and when a xylem tube is severed the water under tension rapidly withdraws from the cut surface, forming an embolism. No more water can be drawn past the embolism. The effects of camphor are so at odds with orthodox views concerning the ascent of water through plants that the British plant physiologist W. Whether this oscillatory secretion of water is the primary mechanism of water ascent in plants, as Bose proposed, is another matter entirely. Indeed, at an intuitive level, it is difficult to imagine how these feeble cellular contractions that Bose could detect only by extreme magnification, could drive the enormous volume of water that a typical plant transports daily. In fact, H. Benedict published an abstract shortly before his tragic death in which he took Bose to task on this very point. Waves of calcium release have been recorded propagating through the inner cortex of the roots of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. It seems likely that the electrical waves detected by Bose in the inner cortex are simply electrical correlates of these calcium waves. Indeed, there is a close correspondence between the passage of calcium waves and variations in the surface potential of plant leaves. Initially, the calcium waves revealed by microscopy in Arabidopsis were found only in salt-stressed plants. Subsequently, it was discovered that wounding and insect herbivory also elicit calcium waves in Arabidopsis. Daniel T. MacDougal had an enormous range of interests, but is perhaps best remembered today for his contributions to plant ecology, especially his studies concerning the survivorship of plants transplanted to new environments. MacDougal felt strongly about the public dissemination of science, so much so that he became the unofficial spokesperson of American plant physiology. Due to these proclivities and his professional stature, MacDougal was appointed a Trustee of the Science Service, an organization founded in with the goal of accurately informing the American public of the latest scientific discoveries. Eventually, MacDougal would bring to bear all his connections with the press to wage war against Bose and his ideas. MacDougal had injected the ovaries of flowers with various salts and found that the seeds from the flowers thus treated sometimes produced lines of progeny phenotypically different from the mother plant. Moreover, unlike many American scientists of the era who departed reluctantly for positions at the newly founded schools of the American West, MacDougal had no use for east coast academic elitism: he embraced the American West. MacDougal was an avid outdoorsman whose greatest passion was taking select friends, often fellow eugenicists, on expeditions to remote areas of the American Southwest. It was while reading an appreciative history of the Desert Laboratory 62 that a photograph see p. What grabbed my attention was the presence of Charles B. As its Superintendent, Davenport appointed Harry H. The far reaching proposal of sterilizing one tenth of the population impressed me very much. It is possible that Davenport was present in Tucson simply in his capacity as the Director of another CIW-sponsored facility, but, in fact, Davenport and MacDougal were good friends who maintained an active correspondence for more than three decades. During his frequent trips to New York, MacDougal often made it a point to meet with Davenport socially, and on occasion, was his houseguest at Cold Spring Harbor. The two men also shared an interest in the effects of transplantation on the fitness of organisms. Much as MacDougal was interested in the effects of transplantation to foreign environments on the survivability of plants, Davenport was interested in the effects of the same on humans. Especially does this folk of jungle origin wither away in our large cities. Davenport was not the only eugenicist in the Desert Laboratory photograph: in fact, of the remaining six Ph. Robert S. Francis E. Lloyd, a plant physiologist who made major contributions toward understanding stomata and carnivorous plants, was a member of the Advisory Council of the Eugenics Society. George H. Shull, who was later to gain fame as the developer of hybrid maize, was an Advisory Council member of the Eugenics Society of America and a member of the Eugenics Research Association. MacDougal, too, had sympathies with the eugenics movement. Cannon or Burton E. Livingston, the two remaining Ph. Although MacDougal accepted his nomination to the General Committee of the Second International Congress of Eugenics, it is not clear that he ever actually served on the Committee. This might be related to the fact that although the Congress had been scheduled to be held in New York City in , it did not actually convene until because of the outbreak of World War I. At some time during this period, MacDougal fell in love with the writer Mary Austin, who had a severely disabled and institutionalized daughter. His lengthy affair with the writer Mary Austin was the subject of gossip on the Peninsula and reportedly caused Mrs. Accompanying him on this expedition was William T. I wish you to go with me on a fine desert trip, in the near future; and I also wish you to know that there are mighty few men whom I ever invite to go with me into the desert. When I say that I would really like to have you go with me, I mean it! If an Indian is not picturesque, why is he? I am not so enthusiastic over conditions in New Mexico and southern Arizona as to wish to take on a third of a continent more of the same kind. We have got a major problem in the negro and a minor problem in the Mexican and other foreign races and to take over another big section of the same kind would be pretty bad when mixed in with our kind of politics. I am willing to go on record here in print or anywhere as saying that his pulsations, heart-beats and nerves in plants are sheer nonsense with no scientific foundation whatever. In a letter to Edward E. This is the fact that I have recently received a message from the Hindoo University at Benares, India, asking if I would be one of the examiners of a thesis … I have cabled acceptance, but I am wondering what the relations between the physiological elements in the two places may be. Uncharacteristically and for reasons lost to history, MacDougal was supportive of the Chinese who had settled in the American West. Gulick, founder of the National Committee for Constructive Immigration, an organization aimed at easing U. I have met and studied with and have had Japanese students in Europe, in New York, in Indiana, in Minnesota, Arizona and California; and my opinion is based upon experiences gained in this way. I must claim as near freedom from personal prejudice as anyone can have on such questions. Action in California, as you doubtless know, is based almost altogether upon prejudice: a fact which must be recognized in dealing with the matter. Van Buren Thorne of the work of the Indian scientist Bose calls for some attention, because the wide publicity resulting from its appearance in the Times Book Review of June 20 may mislead many people of even less discrimination than the author of the review, who assumes the pose of discoverer of unappreciated genius. In July, in a letter to Albert G. In response to this setback, MacDougal enlisted the help of two popular science writers, Edwin Emery Slosson — and Edward Elway Free — , both of whom incidentally, in keeping with a theme of this paper, were sympathetic to the eugenics movement. Perhaps it was to these two men that MacDougal was referring when in he reported to the Irish botanist H. For his part, E. Free, who had recently found a new position as the science editor for the New York Herald Tribune , penned four intemperate and illogical anti-Bose editorials. In the opening decades of the 20 th century, one of the more discussed works of pseudoscience was research suggesting that human souls have mass. This idea stemmed from the research of a Massachusetts physician, Duncan MacDougall, who put dying patients and their beds on a scale and claimed that an average loss of 21 grams occurred precisely at the time the patient expired. This can, however, be explained without postulating a soul in the plant. Richard B. Goldschmidt — Because MacDougal was an eminent scientist and because he co-resided in two of the more picturesque towns of the American West, namely Tucson, Arizona and Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, MacDougal enjoyed a parade of international visitors over the years. Stopovers in Tucson, in particular, were popular with visiting biologists traversing the country by rail. One of the more eminent scholars to have visited MacDougal in Tucson during a round-the-world tour was the German later American geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt — who then, after crossing the Pacific Ocean, made his way to Kolkata where he visited Bose. Bose lived there. I had met him before and was anxious to see the working place of this much advertised scientist. We informed him of our arrival and received an invitation to tea and a visit to his institution. Bose was originally an engineer but later turned to botany. He used his engineering talent to build refined instruments, which were attached to plants. The instruments produced graphs, which Bose explained as recording the heartbeat of the plant, and he wrote some books on his experiments in which he claimed to have discovered the soul of plants … As he was very wealthy, he traveled often to Europe, lectured in a half-scientific, half-mystical style, and of course made a great success of it, though the profession did not think highly of it … In his home town Bose founded and endowed a laboratory where the most marvelous things were to be done, a kind of unification of the spirit of all living creatures. The place turned out as I expected. A number of halls and galleries surrounded a large courtyard; the halls were the laboratories, and they clearly showed that no work was going on. But in some of the rooms and galleries an instrument was installed, and an assistant stood by to make a demonstration. We were to see the heartbeat and soul of plants. In each instrument hung a withered bit of some plant in touch with a lever, and from the instrument one could read oscillations. The oscillations were there all right, but nobody could say where they came from. One could think that Bose was honest, but too ignorant to know or to find out what his instruments were taking down. I have \[no? The whole thing was just a joke, and I wonder how he could get away with it and be feted all over Europe as a great man … Tea in his house was served by an English lady, in Indian garb, who lived in the house as a kind of adoring disciple. This made me believe that after all Bose was a fake. Goldschmidt embraced a Jewish school of thought that took pride in the belief that the Jews had been practicing eugenics for thousands of years. The Western media of the time, however, often portrayed wealthy Indians, visiting maharajahs, for example, as effete and degraded. For the record, Bose was not spectacularly wealthy. Bose was so impecunious during these years that he and Abala, his newlywed wife, rented a cottage on the opposite bank of the Hooghly River from Presidency College. The idea that Bose was fantastically wealthy because he used much of his personal wealth to fund in part the founding of the Bose Institute may be the result of a cross-cultural misunderstanding. While retirement in the West is typically a time of personal frugality, among devout Hindus it is typically a time of munificence. During Sannyasa , the final life stage within the traditional Hindu ashram system, the devout renounce worldly and materialistic pursuits and dedicate their lives to spiritual pursuits. Bose, nor of that curious mixture of occultism and metaphysics which we associate with the East. Through all an afternoon we followed him from marvel to marvel. Ardently and with an enthusiasm, with a copiousness of ideas that were almost too much for his powers of expression and left him impatiently stammering with the effort to elucidate methods, appraise results, unfold implications, he expounded them one by one. George J. Peirce — , a professor of plant physiology at Stanford University. Bose, in addition to receiving a fine education from Calcutta University B. Thus, he received one of the best scientific educations available in the West. Peirce and MacDougal had a friendly correspondence that spanned decades and included several unfulfilled invitations by MacDougal to join him on scientific expeditions. Although there is no evidence that MacDougal and Peirce colluded against Bose, they did discuss him in their correspondences. Among us we may possibly manage to let the gas out of that balloon. The book came today. Gustof A. Persson — In the main, the chief strategy of the American biologists and science writers aligned against Bose was to publish negative book reviews and snarky letters to editors. The artificial earthquake produced by the passage of motor-vans is however introducing increasing difficulty in the use of supersensitive instruments. Bose states that only his invention, the magnetic sphygmograph, which had the capacity to magnify 10,, times, allowed one to obtain mechanical records of the pulsations he proposed were involved in the propulsion of sap. In the first, the movement of the reflecting mirror component of the optical lever is driven mechanically; in the second, by the frictionless movement of one magnet past another see ref. Bose had previously reported being successful recording electrical oscillations in plants using either type but not with equal facility. In fact, the oscillations that Bose recorded using the Einthoven were so weak that the vigor of the plant and the environmental conditions had to be optimal in order to record satisfactorily see ref. Since Persson specified neither the type nor the sensitivity of the galvanometer he used, it is impossible to assess his claim that his was an apparatus of far greater delicacy. However, given that Persson was a physician with experience in electrocardiography, it is a fair guess that he used an Einthoven galvanometer, the type then used in electrocardiography and which had given Bose such a struggle insofar as recording clear pulsations. So, who was Gustof A. Persson and how did his patently flawed work ever find its way into print? Persson was a Swedish immigrant to America who, after a rather peripatetic education in the Great Lakes region, eventually earned his M. Persson, an entrepreneur by nature, dreamed of founding a pharmaceutical company in Mt. Persson himself, however, was poorly qualified for such an undertaking. Indeed, it would appear, based on his mislabeling of a petiole as a stem, that Persson had little background in botany see ref. There was also some serious editorial malfeasance in the handling of this article by the Associate Editor Albert G. In fact, Ingalls and MacDougal had been privately discussing Bose for years. Free had appointed MacDougal a Consulting Editor. He is a Hindoo, is wealthy and the English feel compelled to stand for him. The scientists simply writhe. When he comes to England he is not invited to lecture at the scientific laboratories but will be invited to give lectures in the office or waiting room of the Prime Minister. So, which of these two definitions did MacDougal mean? The s were a fertile era for supernaturalism and occultism. Many of the survivors of these twin calamities were left with deep psychological scars that made them easy targets for occultists. In his bestseller Raymond or Life and Death , Lodge claimed to have made contact with the spirit of his son Raymond who was killed in World War I in Think of the fine stuff this may be to such men as Sir Oliver Lodge, and his tribe is a numerous one. Never was mysticism so prevalent as just now, at least certainly not at any time in the last fifty years. The world seems to have had such a dose of facts and to have had such a tremendous lot of staggering ones to assimilate in recent years that they run to something smoothly flowing and without corners. It was alleged that offerings made to the tree had the means of effecting marvellous cures. Bose then proceeded to demonstrate that there was nothing supernatural about this palm: its daily stem movements were manifestations of thermonasty. Bose found that stem nyctinasty was not limited to this singular specimen but was fairly common, albeit it in less dramatic form, in the branches of many flowering plants, a phenomenon rediscovered a century later using terrestrial laser scanning. So, was Bose a mystic in the more exalted theological sense of the word? He was certainly a religious man. Reasonable people can disagree whether Brahmoism is a Hindu sect or a distinct religion. Founded in the early 19 th century, Brahmoism was closely aligned with Unitarianism. Brahmos were monotheists who did not discriminate between caste, creed or religion. The Brahmo Samaj, the Progressive social arm of Brahmoism, was deeply engaged in social reform, including the education of women and the abolition of the caste and dowry systems, child marriage and widow burning. Astronomy, geology, botany and chemistry, anatomy and physiology are the living scriptures of the God of Nature. But what about his oral scientific legacy? There is, of course, a secular reason why Bose might have chosen to end his lecture in this fashion. In effect, he was reminding his overlords that India and its belief systems were around long before the British Raj planted its flag in Indian soil, and that they would remain so long after the Raj departed. Like most Bengalis, Bose was an ardent nationalist. Despite their celebrity and status, the Boses were not immune to the indignities and humiliations of living in an occupied country. Bose were going to Calcutta by the Bombay Mail … Two Englishmen were seated in a first-class compartment. When Dr. Bose tried to get into the carriage, the Englishmen objected violently; they were not going to travel with Indians. One of them went to fetch the station master to remove the Boses: the station master was unwilling to take action. But was it their racism that turned them so vehemently against Bose? Earlier, I have recounted many disparaging comments that MacDougal made against Bose both in public and private. A fine lot of jelly. By golly, that boy can write, though. If so, what do you think of it frankly? I have a reason for asking, for the editor of the Century Magazine asked me to contribute an article for the Century on chemistry, to form one of a series by distinguished scientists on the trend of modern thought. Lodge, a famous physicist despondent over the death of his son in the trenches of World War I, had made a fool of himself in scientific circles by falling prey to the hocus pocus of psychics and mediums but what was the reason for all the scorn that MacDougal had heaped upon Bose? Slosson, a chemist by training, wanted to be sure. MacDougal obliged about a fortnight later unaware that Slosson had been stricken ill. In general, however, MacDougal stood on firm ground on this point. The idea that impulses were conducted by waves of hydrostatic pressure has long gone by the board and was signally disproven by myself so long ago … when I showed that impulses could be sent through sections of stem killed by heat. Likewise if he has identified nervous structures in plants he has not communicated their description in a manner which would convey information to specialists in the structure of protoplasm or the anatomy of plants. Since MacDougal in a letter to H. As evidence of this, MacDougal enclosed a copy of Living Plants and Their Properties , a book of botanical essays that he had coauthored decades earlier with Joseph C. Arthur, his Ph. Arthur and myself in , the titles to the chapters of which seem pertinent to this discussion … you will see that we discuss. Austin playfully recounts a discussion she overheard between MacDougal and Harvard psychologist \[and eugenicist\] William McDougall:. The anti-Bose camp in the United States, as has been discussed, had an extremely high density of racist eugenicists. It is important to emphasize that I did not selectively choose these individuals from a pool of possible candidates: they were the opposition. Of course, since the s were an especially racist period in U. I do not think this was the case. Of the hundred or so American botanists included in the third edition of American Men of Science published in , I recognize only eight who were active eugenicists in that they wrote articles on the topic or were members of eugenics societies John M. Coulter, Edward M. East, William D. Hoyt, Francis E. MacDougal, George J. Peirce and George H. Shull ; of these eight, only three were plant physiologists MacDougal, Peirce and Lloyd. Of course, it is impossible to assess the percentage of U. However, it is telling that of the three plant physiologists who can be definitely linked to the eugenics movement, two, MacDougal and, to a lesser extent, Peirce, spearheaded the American opposition to Bose. Scientists who express maverick views always face strong opposition from the scientific orthodoxy: so, was the opposition that Bose faced out of the ordinary? The intense animus directed at Bose by his U. Fame is a scarce commodity amongst plant physiologists, and in the s Bose commanded nearly all of it. Bose was not perfect; his overly speculative theories and overreliance on inductive reasoning, in some cases, made him a target for condemnation. Clearly, Western scientists of the current generation are not responsible for the racist sins of the past but in cases where the xenophobia and cultural ignorance of our intellectual forebears has effectively erased, marred or diminished the legacy of a great scholar, it is morally imperative that we, as scholars, not be implicit in perpetuating a gross, historical injustice. Bose was one of the most brilliant minds to ever contemplate plant function. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Plant Signal Behav. Find articles by Peter V Minorsky. Collection date Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.
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American racism and the lost legacy of Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, the father of plant neurobiology
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz
American racism and the lost legacy of Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, the father of plant neurobiology
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz
Buy Ecstasy online in Taiz