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Sexuality and politics: This explosive combination occurred in the s solely in West Germany and was buoyed by the New Left. Freiburg historian Dr. The iconic images of , which were conveyed by the media over the past 50 years, have often led people down the wrong path. Take the Federal Republic. Perhaps the writings offered a satisfying explanation for the gaping wounds from the recent past. After only a few years, it was considered commonplace to view cruel, authoritarian subjects as a result of sexual pent up energy. The new Left ensured the politicization of this line of thinking. It had to discover new subjects such as sexuality and make their mark by laying claim to them. A slogan travels around the world: The 68ers combined a repressive sexual morality with war and obedient subjects - on the other hand, they promised peace through free sexual expression. In France, the Old Left dominated events with classic communist themes and also influenced student movements. The Conservatives, Catholics, and Communists were united through their clear distancing from the issue of sexuality. Levsen discovered that even the student and school protest movements were not very similar. See Kommune I: Rainer Langhans and others were photographed nude and spread their thoughts on free love and orgasmic debauchery for every media savvy occasion. In France, there was no comparable cooperative living arrangements to be found. Sexuality on the other hand: no dice. LSD demands 'total sex education'. Source: Stadtarchiv Lahr. Sex as a strategy for politicization or provocation did not appear anywhere in the group. Above all, the British protests were directed against the Vietnam War and nuclear weapons, specifies Levsen - and the English and French press hardly reported on the permissive political spectacle of the West Germans. Instead, questions have begun to emerge about the respective national circumstances. The global sixties must not have been so global after all. Search Site only in current section. Advanced Search…. Document Actions Print this. Why did sexuality and politics enter such an explosive relationship in Germany in and not in other countries? Rimma Gerenstein. Quick Access Newsroom. Press Releases. Online Magazine. University newspaper. Research magazine. Social Media.

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Correspondence should be addressed to Matthias E. E-mail: matthias. MDMA is reported to produce empathogenic and prosocial feelings. It is unknown whether MDMA in fact alters empathic concern and prosocial behavior. We also assessed effects of MDMA on plasma levels of hormones involved in social behavior using a placebo-controlled, double-blind, random-order, cross-over design in 32 healthy volunteers 16 women. MDMA increased plasma levels of cortisol and prolactin, which are markers of serotonergic and noradrenergic activity, and of oxytocin, which has been associated with prosocial behavior. In summary, MDMA sex-specifically altered the recognition of emotions, emotional empathy and prosociality. These effects likely enhance sociability when MDMA is used recreationally and may be useful when MDMA is administered in conjunction with psychotherapy in patients with social dysfunction or post-traumatic stress disorder. Keywords: MDMA, ecstasy, empathy, emotion recognition, social cognition, social behavior. MDMA produces subjective prosocial feelings Dumont et al. However, it is unknown whether MDMA indeed increases empathic concern for others or prosocial behavior when measured objectively. The empathy construct includes cognitive and emotional aspects Blair, ; Dziobek et al. MDMA did not improve emotion recognition overall in any of these tests Bedi et al. Thus, MDMA may differentially alter emotion recognition, depending on the emotional valence of the stimuli. Whether MDMA modulates the emotional aspects of empathy such as empathic concern and whether it changes social behavior has not yet been tested. As an additional assessment of the cognitive component of empathy, and to confirm previously documented effects of MDMA on emotion recognition, we used a novel FERT, which uses more naturalistic dynamic presentations of facial affect Domes et al. Because several neuropeptides and steroid hormones are involved in the regulation of social cognition and behaviors Kosfeld et al. We hypothesized that MDMA enhances both emotional empathy and prosocial behavior consistent with the self-rated social effects of the drug. The study included equal numbers of both sexes to test the modulatory effects of the MDMA response by sex, which has been observed for oxytocin Hurlemann et al. Subjects with a personal or first-degree relative history of psychiatric disorders or chronic or acute physical illness were excluded as previously described Hysek et al. Additional exclusion criteria were smoking, a lifetime history of using illicit drugs more than five times, with the exception of past cannabis use, and any illicit drug use including cannabis within the last 2 months or during the study period, determined by repeated urine tests conducted during screening and before each test session using TRIAGE 8 Biosite, San Diego, CA, USA. Nineteen subjects had used cannabis more than five times in the past. Fifteen participants reported using other illicit drugs one to four times. The use of a within-subjects study design avoided confounding of the acute MDMA effect by drug history in this study. Female subjects were investigated during the follicular phase Day 2—14 of their menstrual cycle to account for cyclic changes in the reactivity to amphetamines. We used a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design where all 32 subjects were treated with both MDMA mg and placebo 64 assessments. The washout period was at least 10 days. The study was registered at ClinicalTrials. All the subjects provided written informed consent before participating in the study and were paid for their participation. Identical placebo capsules contained only mannitol. MDMA was administered orally at a dose of mg, corresponding to a mean dose of 1. Visual analog scales VASs Hysek et al. The MET was used to assess the cognitive and emotional aspects of empathy Dziobek et al. The test consisted of 40 photographs that showed people in emotionally charged situations Hurlemann et al. To assess cognitive empathy, the participants were required to infer the mental state of the subject in each scene and indicate the correct one from a list of four responses. Cognitive empathy was defined as the percentage of correct responses in the total responses. To measure emotional empathy, the subjects were asked to rate how much they were feeling for the individual in each scene i. The latter rating provides an inherent assessment of emotional empathy, which is considered to reduce the likelihood of socially desirable answers Dziobek et al. The three aspects of empathy were each tested with 20 stimuli with positive valence and 20 stimuli with negative valence, resulting in a total of trials. The MET was performed 3 h after drug administration and after the initial intense subjective peak drug effects had reached a stable level. A validated German version Paulus, of the interpersonal reactivity index IRI Davis, was used once to assess trait empathy. The paper-based SVO measure was used to assess social behavior Murphy et al. In such a resource allocation task, prosociality is defined as a behavior that maximizes the sum of resources for the self and others and minimizes the difference between the two Haruno and Frith, ; Murphy et al. The test consists of six primary and nine secondary SVO slider items with a resource allocation choice over a defined continuum of joint payoffs Murphy et al. The participants were instructed to choose their allocation that defines their most preferred joint distribution between themselves and another person. Allocated funds had real value, and two randomly selected subjects received the funds they earned. For the primary items, mean allocations for self and the other were calculated. A greater SVO angle indicates that the participant more often chose the option that maximized the allocation for the other person, consistent with prosocial or altruistic behavior. The nine secondary items were used to differentiate between two prosocial motivations, inequality aversion and joint gain maximization. The inequality-aversion index was calculated as previously described Murphy et al. An index of 0 indicates perfect inequality aversion, and 1 indicates maximal preference for joint gain maximization. The test was administered after the MET at 4 h after drug administration. As dependent variables, the emotional intensity at which the trial was stopped for correct answers was recorded. The emotion recognition accuracy was then assessed, defined as the percentage of correctly identified emotions Domes et al. Plasma levels of oxytocin and copeptin were determined before and 1 and 2 h and levels of cortisol, prolactin and testosterone before and 2 h after drug administration using different immunoassays Morgenthaler et al. Drug effects were first analyzed by an overall analysis of variance ANOVA , with drug as a within-subject factor. The modulatory effects of sex were then analyzed by ANOVAs, with drug as within- and sex as between-subjects factors. Confounding effects of previous cannabis use on the sex—drug interaction were excluded by ANOVAs, with drug experience as additional factor. Men tended to score non-significantly lower on both measures of emotional empathy compared with women after placebo administration. MDMA increased empathy ratings in men to the levels of empathy in women after placebo administration. No effect of treatment was found on cognitive empathy scores Figure 2 C. MDMA significantly increased emotional empathy in all subjects due to increases in men but not in women. MDMA increased prosociality. A MDMA had prosocial effects in men, resulting in levels of prosociality equal to those of placebo-treated women. No correlations were found between the neuroendocrine and empathogenic or prosocial effects of MDMA. Mean AUC 0 — 6 h values were The relative doses of MDMA were 1. Higher plasma exposure to MDMA was significantly associated with deficits in the recognition of fearful faces in women as described above. The time to maximum concentration T max was reached after a mean time of 2. Mean T max values were 2. The pharmacokinetic data were consistent with previous studies Hysek et al. The novel findings of this study are that MDMA increased emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. This effect was observed primarily in men. Consequently, male subjects showed more empathic concern and less competitive behavior and exhibited a more prosocial orientation after MDMA treatment, equal to that observed in women with placebo. In addition, MDMA tended to increase the preference for fairness, reflected by a trend reduction in inequality-aversion compared with placebo. In addition, the study also documented increased MDMA-induced prosociality in men in a behavioral task. MDMA did not alter cognitive empathy in the MET and impaired emotion recognition of basic emotions in the FERT especially in women, consistent with impaired cognitive empathy with regard to decoding of basic emotions. Specifically, MDMA reduced the recognition of negative facial emotions, including fear, anger and disgust, consistent with the reduced recognition of fearful faces in a static FERT Bedi et al. MDMA did not affect the recognition of happy faces as previously shown Bedi et al. MDMA reduced affect recognition accuracy particularly in women. The largest MDMA-induced deficit in women was found in fear recognition and involved both accuracy and intensity detection thresholds. A functional imaging study showed that MDMA enhanced the response to happy faces in the ventral striatum Bedi et al. Because women generally exhibit greater left amygdala activation to negative emotional stimuli than men Stevens and Hamann, , MDMA may alter emotional processing in a valence- and sex-specific manner by modulating the brain circuits involved in the processing of reward and anxiety. More specifically, MDMA appears to reduce the recognition of negative but not positive emotions in others across different tests and studies. Altogether, these effects of MDMA likely result in a shift in the processing of social—emotional information toward enhanced perception and possibly responses to positive emotional stimuli. Both the positive and prosocial mood effects and valence-specific social cognitive effects of MDMA likely enhance sociability when MDMA is used as a club drug. The effects of MDMA on social cognition may also facilitate the processing of emotionally distressing material when MDMA is used in combination with psychotherapy for patients with social dysfunction and social threat such as post-traumatic stress disorder and social anxiety disorder Mithoefer et al. Sex differences in various effects of MDMA have previously been described. MDMA produced more intense acute subjective effects Liechti et al. Women also more frequently developed hyponatremia in association with ecstasy use compared with men Rosenson et al. These findings indicate that women may be generally more susceptible to the effects MDMA compared with men. Consistently, we observed MDMA-induced deficits in the recognition of sad faces only in women but not in men and significantly greater deficits in the recognition of fearful faces in women compared with men. A reduced ability to detect and process negative emotional information is likely therapeutically relevant when MDMA is used in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. In this study, we documented increased levels of oxytocin, cortisol and prolactin along with alterations in emotional cognition. However, we found no correlations between MDMA-induced endocrine and emotional changes. The lack of associations does not exclude a role for oxytocin in the empathogenic and prosocial effects of MDMA as discussed below. There are several possible reasons for the lack of significant correlations. First, circulating levels of neurohormones may not reflect their brain levels Neumann, Second, blood drawings to determine the endocrine markers had to be done before or after the computer tasks for practical reasons. Third, the use of only one relatively high dose of MDMA likely resulted in maximal threshold effects precluding the detection of correlations between the endocrine biomarkers and emotional measures across subjects. We have previously documented an identical lack of correlations between the subjective and autonomic effects of MDMA across a large number of subjects once peak drug effects are reached while there are strong associations over time within subjects Hysek and Liechti, Which neurotransmitters or hormones may contribute to the effects of MDMA on social cognition? The primary mechanism of action of MDMA is to release serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain, and both neurotransmitters have been shown to mediate most of the acute psychotropic effects of MDMA Hysek et al. Serotonin and norepinephrine release also likely mediates the effects of MDMA on emotional processing. In fact, we previously demonstrated that the inhibition of MDMA-induced serotonin and norepinephrine release with duloxetine not only prevented the subjective effects of MDMA Hysek et al. In addition, serotonin transporter inhibitors, such as citalopram, also alter emotional processing, depending on emotional valence Anderson et al. Furthermore, polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene were also associated with altered emotion recognition, particularly of fearful faces Hinkelmann et al. Serotonin is also a supposed regulator of social behavior. Enhancing serotonin via transporter inhibition increases aspects of prosocial behavior Knutson et al. Finally, the norepinephrine transporter inhibitor reboxetine increased the recognition of happy faces and impaired the recognition of fearful faces Harmer et al. Altogether, the effects of the serotonin and norepinephrine releaser MDMA on emotional processing and social behavior are consistent with the effects reported for other pharmacological manipulations of these neurotransmitters. However, the extent to which downstream stimulating effects on social neuropeptides and hormones are involved is unclear. Oxytocin is a key candidate for the mediation of the empathic and prosocial effects of MDMA Thompson et al. MDMA activates oxytocin neurons, increases plasma oxytocin levels through 5-HT 1A receptors and increases social interaction in rats Thompson et al. Blocking oxytocin receptors in the brain reduced the prosocial effects of MDMA in rats Thompson et al. In this study, MDMA increased the plasma levels of oxytocin in parallel with its empathogenic and prosocial effects. A comparable selective increase in the sensitivity in detecting positive vs negative facial expressions was also reported for oxytocin Marsh et al. Both MDMA and oxytocin reduced the response of the amygdala to negative emotional stimuli Kirsch et al. Comparable to the prosocial effects of MDMA, oxytocin has been shown to increase generosity Zak et al. Directly testing the role of oxytocin in the effects of MDMA in humans will be difficult because clinically used oxytocin receptor antagonists or PET ligands do not cross well the blood—brain barrier Smith et al. MDMA response modulation by genetic polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene e. In addition, effects of MDMA or of pharmacologically similar but less toxic drugs could be evaluated in patients with social dysfunction where oxytocin is implicated such as autism Guastella et al. As expected Harris et al. Cortisol and prolactin are primarily markers of hypothalamic—pituitary—adrenal, serotonergic and noradrenergic activity but there are limited data on the role of cortisol in social cognition. In men, high stress-induced cortisol levels were associated with better social cognition Smeets et al. This study has limitations. First, we used only one dose of MDMA. Second, we used a relatively high dose of MDMA with obvious subjective effects. Although we used a double-blind design and identical placebo most participants realized which treatment they had been administered over the course of the experimental session. Thus, unblinding the subjective effects of MDMA may have biased task performance. We felt that it is important to use relevant doses of MDMA, which correspond to those typically used in recreational settings Brunt et al. Lower doses of MDMA and active placebo could be used in future studies. Third, the evaluation of many aspects of social cognition in this study required a relatively large number of statistical comparisons. In summary, the novel findings are that MDMA increases emotional empathy and prosocial behavior in healthy subjects. Supplementary data are available at SCAN online. The authors acknowledge the assistance of A. Fink, N. Meyer, N. Schillinger, C. Baselgia in study management, M. Arends in editing the manuscript. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation grant no. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. Find articles by Yasmin Schmid. Find articles by Linda D Simmler. Find articles by Gregor Domes. Find articles by Markus Heinrichs. Find articles by Christoph Eisenegger. Find articles by Katrin H Preller. Find articles by Boris B Quednow. 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