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Activities by an organized crime group involving the illegal entry, transit or residence of migrants for a financial or material benefit. The production, transport, storage and sale of goods that are fraudulently mislabeled or fraudulent imitations of registered brands. The illicit transport, handling and sale of excise consumer goods despite a ban or outside a legal market. Excludes oil and counterfeits. The illicit trade and possession of species covered by CITES convention, and other species protected under national law. The poaching, illicit trade in and possession of species covered by CITES and other species protected by national law. Includes IUU fishing. The illicit extraction, smuggling, mingling, bunkering or mining of natural resources and the illicit trade of such commodities. The production, distribution and sale of heroin. Consumption of the drug is considered in determining the reach of the criminal market. The production, distribution and sale of cocaine and its derivatives. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market. The illicit cultivation, distribution and sale of cannabis oil, resin, herb or leaves. Consumption is used to determine the market's reach. The production, distribution and sale of synthetic drugs. Organized crime that results in a monetary loss via financial fraud, embezzlement, misuse of funds, tax evasion and abusive tax avoidance. Clearly defined organized crime groups that usually have a known name, defined leadership, territorial control and identifiable membership. Loose networks of criminal associates engaging in criminal activities who fail to meet the defining characteristics of mafia-style groups. Includes foreign nationals and diaspora groups. The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities. A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime. The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities. Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs. Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime. Human trafficking is a widespread criminal market in the Republic of Korea South Korea , with national and foreign victims being exploited. Forced labour is the most common form of exploitation, with men from Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Mongolia being the most vulnerable. They are forced to work on fishing vessels, farms, and salt mines. Sex work is also prevalent, with more than a million South Korean women working in red-light districts. Women are lured into sex work with advance payments, but the contracts involve hidden costs and heavy penalties that make them indebted to procurers. There has been an increase in South Korean entertainment-promotion agencies and Russian recruitment agencies in regions close to the Republic of Korea, where falsified documents are used to traffic women into the country. However, increased prosecutions of trafficking offenders and stricter guidelines on the protection of fishermen vulnerable to trafficking have slightly scaled down the illicit market. North Korean defectors are not considered to be smuggled when they arrive in the Republic of Korea, but brokers in China help smuggle North Koreans out of the country in exchange for payment, while many volunteers do the same for free. South Koreans attempt to enter the US, Japan, and France through irregular means, though the extent of organized crime networks involved in these flows is unclear. Extortion and protection racketeering are not widespread in the country as victims of such crimes can report to the police and inform media outlets. Recent cases of extortion have been linked to sex work establishments. The Republic of Korea experiences limited arms trafficking. However, the country is increasingly becoming a prominent international arms exporter, particularly in the ammunition field. This could pose a risk of leakage from state armouries, and fuel insurgencies and transnational criminal organizations. To mitigate this risk, the Republic of Korea has implemented firearm surrender schemes and weapon seizure programmes, contributing to the reduction of illicit firearms. Even the criminal groups, if any, do not possess and use guns, which could be deterring illicit trade in firearms into the country. The Republic of Korea has a problem with counterfeit goods, especially in the luxury market, with most of the fake products originating in China. In recent years, authorities have noticed an increasing variety of counterfeit products, including low-end essentials, drugs, processed meats, electronics, and vehicle and train engine parts. The country serves as a transit point for illicit cigarettes purchased in Vietnam and Thailand, shipped to Cambodia, hidden in luxury travel bags, and then transported to China via the Republic of Korea. The Republic of Korea is a major importer of timber and wood-based products and is one of the top five consumers of illegal wood globally. Although illegal timber imports have decreased over the past decade, illegal trade in timber from Indonesia to the Republic of Korea persists. There is evidence of South Korean conglomerates causing deforestation in the Papua province of Indonesia by converting rainforests into palm oil plantations. In addition to illegal timber, there have been cases of traffickers attempting to smuggle other protected flora species into the Republic of Korea, leading to arrests and fines. The Republic of Korea has been identified as a destination country for wildlife trafficking, particularly for products like elephant tusks, rhino horns, and ivory that are smuggled from Africa, albeit with decreasing demand in recent years. The country also serves as a transit point for trafficking of such wildlife products into China. Although pangolins and ivory are not primary goods in the South Korean market, smugglers use the country as a transit point to evade controls and seizures. The recent prohibition of bear-bile farming in the Republic of Korea is expected to significantly reduce bear trafficking into the country, which has been an important market. However, there is still high demand for tiger parts in the Republic of Korea, and the country faces significant issues regarding illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing. The Republic of Korea is a transit country for non-renewable resource smuggling because of its developed infrastructure. Cases of illegally-imported coal and organized gold smuggling have been reported. South Korean gold mining companies have been found operating in Central Africa, which may enable illicit trade between Africa and the Republic of Korea. Although the Republic of Korea has imposed strict sanctions prohibiting any trade with the DPRK, smugglers have previously exported natural resources, such as coal, into the Republic of Korea, violating international sanctions. Although there is a lack of data on the matter, it appears that there is no major criminal market for non-renewable resources in the Republic of Korea. The Republic of Korea is not a significant consumer or producer of illegal drugs, but there has been a steady increase in drug use among the youth in recent years. Heroin is not commonly used in the Republic of Korea, however, there seems to be a stable heroin market in the country with unchanged retail prices despite an increase in the seizures of poppy plants and heroin in recent years. The country serves primarily as a transit point for cocaine coming from countries like Colombia, Mexico, and Honduras and heading to other parts of Asia and Oceania, including Australia, China, Hong Kong, and Macau. Although cocaine use is not popular, local criminal networks are involved in its trafficking. The amount of cocaine seized by authorities in the Republic of Korea has increased in recent years, and drug traffickers are using messenger services, the dark web, and international mail to smuggle and trade drugs into the country, making it difficult for law enforcement to discover such activities. The Republic of Korea has strict regulations on the sale and consumption of recreational cannabis, resulting in a relatively small cannabis market. Despite being the first East Asian country to legalize medical cannabis, the Republic of Korea still classifies cannabis as an illicit substance. Attempts to smuggle liquid cannabis and cannabis-infused foods have increased in recent years, and cannabis is being sold on overseas-based websites with direct delivery services in major cities like Seoul. Seizures of cannabis by national authorities and cannabis-related crimes have been increasing in recent years due to the growing addiction rates among users. The Republic of Korea is a source, transit, and destination country for synthetic drug trafficking. Synthetic cannabinoids are the most common new psychoactive substances seized in the country. Other synthetic drugs, such as LSD analogues and Ecstasy, have seen an increase in seizures and consumption. The use of crystalline methamphetamine is increasing in the country, and precursor chemicals are being smuggled from the Republic of Korea to the Golden Triangle area of Thailand, Loas, and Myanmar for the production synthetic drugs. Similar to other illicit substances, drug traffickers have been increasingly using international delivery services for the smuggling of synthetic drugs into the country. In recent years, the Republic of Korea has seen a sharp rise in cybercrime attacks, including ransomware attacks and cyber-fraud. Despite law enforcement efforts, these attacks have persisted, with ransomware groups targeting private and public organizations. With the Republic of Korea having one of the highest cryptocurrency adoption rates in the world, several crypto fraud schemes have been detected in the country, resulting in millions of dollars lost to these operations. In , South Korean authorities conducted the largest tax seizure relating to cryptocurrency in history. Financial crimes have been on the rise in the Republic of Korea, with embezzlement being a recurring issue. Various companies have reported cases of employees embezzling funds, resulting in arrests and detentions. Politicians have also been involved in fraud scandals related to corruption and bribery in land development. Foreign criminal actors play a major role in South Korean criminal markets and cooperate with local organizations in major South Korean cities such as Seoul, Incheon, and Busan. Mainland Chinese Triads, Japanese Yakuza, and Russian mafia gangs are reportedly involved in various criminal activities in the country, including drug and human trafficking, real estate purchases, and tax evasion in the fishing industry. The Republic of Korea has become an important transit and destination country for drug and wildlife trafficking, with organized criminal networks from China, Mexico, and Africa using the country as a hub for smuggling methamphetamine and other synthetic drugs. Law enforcement agencies have found that several organized crime groups are operating in the Republic of Korea, primarily related to drug crimes and the operation of illegal businesses, with many of these operations carried out by foreign nationals. Since the s, the Republic of Korea has embarked on a campaign to eradicate almost all mafia-style groups in the country. The few remaining organizations are small and do not exert control over territories or engage in intensive violence. However, they still dominate entertainment, drug-smuggling, extortion, real estate, and sex trade businesses, with a focus on targeting small and medium-size enterprises in specific neighbourhoods. Extortion was the traditional means of income generation for these groups, but it appears to be declining as they diversify their operations. The use of guns and violent crime are low in the Republic of Korea, so these criminal groups have expanded into China, South East Asia, and the US, where they operate gambling businesses and engage in extortion of members of the South Korean community. The sex trafficking business is well-organized in the Republic of Korea. The private sector in the Republic of Korea has seen several high-profile cases of corruption and illegal activities involving prominent private and political figures. Losses from tax evasion, embezzlement, bribery, and concealment of criminal proceeds have been estimated in the millions of dollars. Criminal actors aim to gain influence among decision-makers by investing in relationships with legitimate businesses, the police, and politicians. Elected politicians have been involved in scandals linking them to criminal syndicates, and corruption remains a significant issue in the country. The South Korean government is committed to fighting organized crime with an efficient system to tackle criminal markets, which involves gathering and distributing information to law enforcement agencies. Even though the democratic process is considered to be independent, corruption remains a challenge. The Republic of Korea has made significant strides in its fight against corruption, with the government establishing an anti-corruption investigation agency that has proven effective in its first months of operation. The current government is committed to improving transparency at the state level and the situation is expected to evolve in a positive way in the coming years. Despite that, cases of high-ranking officials or CEOs of large companies found to be corrupt continue to hinder the progress. The Republic of Korea is actively involved in international cooperation to combat organized crime, including people smuggling, trafficking, cyber-enabled financial crimes, and drug cartels. The country is a member of various conventions and protocols, and it works closely with organizations like INTERPOL and Europol to share information and coordinate operations. The Republic of Korea has a strict legal framework in place to prevent and combat various forms of crime, and the mere formation of or participation in a criminal organization is penalized, which enables an effective response against organized crime. The country consistently updates its regulatory framework to effectively address emerging forms of criminal activities that pose risks. Criminal proceedings are usually fair. Prison conditions meet international standards and there are no reports of severe abuse such as torture or overcrowded prisons with unsanitary conditions. Law enforcement is a key source of resilience in the country. The proximity of the Republic of Korea to the DPRK, which is a major source of organized crime, has raised concerns about negative impacts and spill-over effects. The DPRK is allegedly involved in various illegal activities, including the manufacture and trade of illegal drugs and counterfeit goods, human trafficking, arms trafficking, wildlife trafficking, counterfeiting currency, and terrorism. The most concerning crime is the smuggling of methamphetamine, which is manufactured in the DPRK. However, the border between the Koreas is highly controlled and monitored, unauthorized crossings and trafficking are rare, and the border is not porous to organized crime. Despite recent agreements to end the war between the Koreas, the border between the countries remains one of the most fortified in the world. However, there are concerns about the country becoming a major trafficking route in East Asia, with criminal networks from countries like China and Mexico using it as a transit point to avoid law enforcement controls in other countries. The Republic of Korea has robust anti-money laundering regulations in place, with the Korea Financial Intelligence Unit playing a crucial role in international efforts to combat money laundering. However, money laundering using cryptocurrencies has emerged as an issue in the Republic of Korea, prompting the government to introduce sanctions against companies that fail to report suspicious transactions. In anticipation of upcoming domestic and global anti-money laundering regulations, major cryptocurrency exchanges in the country have formed a joint venture to develop a system that will enable them to comply with these standards. However, the country is facing challenges posed by criminal organizations involved in illegal activities, including human trafficking, which have infiltrated industries such as entertainment and nightclubs. These groups have diversified their activities to include construction, real estate, gambling, and loan and stock markets. The Republic of Korea has established laws and institutions to protect and support victims of crime, with NGOs providing legal advice and representation to those without financial resources or legal knowledge. Support centres are available throughout the country, and the government has increased the number of officials working to support victims of digital sex crimes. However, despite government efforts to protect sex trafficking victims, there is a lack of protection for labour trafficking victims, and the government does not have formal procedures to refer victims to care. Law enforcement officials are not adequately trained to identify and refer trafficking victims to support services. Along these lines, the government has made several efforts to address shortcomings which include the introduction of training programmes for prosecutors and labour inspectors as well as the initiation of the drafting process for new victim identification guidelines. Additionally, foreign trafficking victims are not encouraged to participate as witnesses during investigations because they cannot obtain long-term or permanent residency permits. Civil society organizations are aiding drug addicts and helping official institutions to tackle drug addiction in the country. The Republic of Korea has implemented various measures to prevent different types of crimes, including human trafficking, drug trafficking, timber trafficking, and cyber-attacks. The government has amended laws, established task forces, and conducted policy-relevant research to prevent crime. The government has developed several awareness campaigns and set up hotlines to prevent and combat human trafficking, although NGOs have criticized the effectiveness of these measures. The Republic of Korea generally allows human rights groups and NGOs to operate freely, but these groups have faced political pressure when criticizing the government or powerful stakeholders. Multiple NGOs actively fight organized crime activities like human trafficking, with some being funded by the government. Overall, NGOs and civil society organizations in the Republic of Korea do not fear government persecution, and likewise these organizations are not considered a significant threat to national or international security. The media are free and competitive, but a defamation law encourages self-censorship, and journalists at major news outlets often face political interference. The South Korean government launched a new corruption investigative body which requested phone records from telecommunications companies without a warrant, and many journalists had their phone data accessed with no explanation. Despite this, the Republic of Korea has shown significant improvement in press freedom in recent years. The criminal markets score is represented by the pyramid base size and the criminal actors score is represented by the pyramid height, on a scale ranging from 1 to The resilience score is represented by the panel height, which can be identified by the side of the panel. A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index. We're constantly working to improve the Index. By participating in this survey, you will be providing us with insights and suggestions that will help us make the Index an even better resource. This report was funded in part by a grant from the United States Department of State. The opinions, findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State. Capital Seoul. Income group High income. Population 51,, Geography type Coastal. GINI Index Criminal markets 3. An assessment of the value, prevalence and non-monetary impacts of a specific crime type. Human trafficking 5. Human smuggling 4. Extortion and protection racketeering 3. Arms trafficking 2. Trade in counterfeit goods 3. Illicit trade in excisable goods 3. Flora crimes 3. Fauna crimes 4. Non-renewable resource crimes 2. Heroin trade 3. Cocaine trade 3. Cannabis trade 3. Synthetic drug trade 5. Cyber-dependent crimes 3. Financial crimes 4. Criminal actors 5. An assessment of the impact and influence of a specific criminal actor type on society. Mafia-style groups 5. Criminal networks 5. State-embedded actors 4. Foreign actors 6. Private sector actors 5. Political leadership and governance 9. Government transparency and accountability 8. International cooperation 8. National policies and laws 9. A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime. Judicial system and detention 9. Law enforcement 8. Territorial integrity 7. Anti-money laundering 8. Economic regulatory capacity 7. Victim and witness support 7. Prevention 8. Non-state actors 8. Analysis Download full profile english. People Human trafficking is a widespread criminal market in the Republic of Korea South Korea , with national and foreign victims being exploited. Trade The Republic of Korea experiences limited arms trafficking. Environment The Republic of Korea is a major importer of timber and wood-based products and is one of the top five consumers of illegal wood globally. Drugs The Republic of Korea is not a significant consumer or producer of illegal drugs, but there has been a steady increase in drug use among the youth in recent years. Cyber Crimes In recent years, the Republic of Korea has seen a sharp rise in cybercrime attacks, including ransomware attacks and cyber-fraud. Financial Crimes Financial crimes have been on the rise in the Republic of Korea, with embezzlement being a recurring issue. Criminal Actors Foreign criminal actors play a major role in South Korean criminal markets and cooperate with local organizations in major South Korean cities such as Seoul, Incheon, and Busan. Leadership and governance The South Korean government is committed to fighting organized crime with an efficient system to tackle criminal markets, which involves gathering and distributing information to law enforcement agencies. Economic and financial environment The Republic of Korea has robust anti-money laundering regulations in place, with the Korea Financial Intelligence Unit playing a crucial role in international efforts to combat money laundering. Civil society and social protection The Republic of Korea has established laws and institutions to protect and support victims of crime, with NGOs providing legal advice and representation to those without financial resources or legal knowledge. Read the analysis Listen the podcasts View all events. Next Skip. How to measure organized crime? Read more on globalinitiative. Give us feedback We're constantly working to improve the Index.

Drug Crimes in Korea: A Guide to Criminal Law for Foreigners

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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. WADA supported the research aim but had no influence over the content, nor provided funding for the work in this project. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. The Extended Crosswise Model ECWM is a randomized response model with neutral response categories, relatively simple instructions, and the availability of a goodness-of-fit test. This paper refines this model with a number sequence randomizer that virtually precludes the possibility to give evasive responses. The motivation for developing this model stems from a strategic priority of WADA World Anti-Doping Agency to monitor the prevalence of doping use by elite athletes. For this model we derived a maximum likelihood estimator that allows for binary logistic regression analysis. Three studies were conducted on online platforms with a total of over 6, respondents; two on controlled substance use and one on compliance with COVID regulations in the UK during the first lockdown. The results of these studies are promising. The goodness-of-fit tests showed little to no evidence for response biases, and the ECWM yielded higher prevalence estimates than direct questions for sensitive questions, and similar ones for non-sensitive questions. Furthermore, the randomizer with the shortest number sequences yielded the smallest response error rates on a control question with known prevalence. Doping in elite sports has become a global challenge that threatens not only the fairness and justice of any sport competition, but also the health and careers of elite athletes \[ 1 \]. Monitoring anti-doping activities worldwide and providing information on the prevalence of doping among elite athletes is one of the strategic priorities of the World Anti-Doping Agency WADA. Obtaining valid and reliable information on the prevalence of doping in competitive sports is essential to appraise the magnitude of the problem and to evaluate the effectiveness of global, national and regional anti-doping strategies \[ 3 \]. Methods for the estimation of doping prevalence in elite sports include testing based on urine or blood analyses, the Athlete Biological Passport and survey methods \[ 4 \]. A promising survey method for asking sensitive questions is using randomized response, because it is designed to eliminate evasive response biases by protecting the privacy of the respondents \[ 5 \]. A meta-analysis has shown that randomized response designs provide more valid prevalence estimates than conventional direct questions DQ when questions are sensitive \[ 6 \]. In the UQM, respondents are instructed to answer either a sensitive question or a non-sensitive unrelated question, depending on the outcome of a randomizer. In \[ 7 \], the UQM was implemented as follows. Respondents were instructed to think of the birthday of a person close to them, and to answer the unrelated question if the birthday fell in the first 10 days of the month, and to otherwise answer the question about doping use. The unrelated question was whether the birthday fell in the first six months of the year or not. The high prevalence estimates of Several hypothesesabout instruction noncompliance were considered, but none of these fully explained the high estimates. To gain insight in the response validity in future applications, a refinement of the methodology was recommended. The UQM has been employed in several studies to estimate the prevalence of various sensitive topics such as induced abortion, doping and illicit drug use in fitness sports and elite athletes, rape victimization and tax evasion. Furthermore, its statistical model is saturated, which makes it impossible to test for the presence of response biases in the data. There are various indirect question techniques that avoid the use of incriminating responses, such as the Unmatched List technique \[ 10 \], the Single Sample Count \[ 11 , 12 \], and the Crosswise Model CWM \[ 13 \]. The CWM has gained sizable popularity since its inception in , and thus offers ample empirical evidence for its performance in obtaining information on a range of socially sensitive issues \[ 14 — 25 \]. Since neither answer has an obvious incriminating connotation, both the urge and the potential for giving evasive responses is expected to be reduced. The statistical model, however, is still saturated and therefore unable to detect response biases. The split in two samples with different randomization probabilities generates the necessary degree of freedom to conduct a goodness-of-fit test. Because of this property, and its neutral response categories, the ECWM was chosen. Since its introduction by \[ 26 \], the ECWM has been applied in studies by \[ 23 , 27 , 28 \]. Addressing some of the concerns highlighted in the systematic review on CWM applications \[ 29 \], we proposed a refinement of the ECWM with a number sequence randomizer rather than the birthday randomizer. With the number sequence randomizer, the respondent is simply asked to memorize one number from a sequence of numbers, and the unrelated question is whether the memorized number is present or not in a second sequence of numbers. Since the probability that the memorized number reappears in the second sequence is exactly known, the potential biases of the birthday randomizer are avoided. The ECWM by \[ 26 \] in combination with our number sequence randomizer addresses these pitfalls. The CDM has been used in studies to estimate the prevalence of doping, and yielded estimates of self-protective no-sayers ranging from The ECWM, however, is not capable of detecting self-protective no-saying. This does not render the goodness-of-fit test useless because it will be able to detect other response biases, as long as their effects on the observed response probabilities do not cancel out. The aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of the ECWM in combination with the number sequence randomizer in three subsequent studies with socially sensitive behavioral choices to each; Study I and III concentrate on controlled substance use and Study II focuses on non-compliance with COVID regulations. The performance of the ECWM is evaluated in several ways. Secondly, we expect the goodness-of-fit tests for the ECWM questions to be non-significant. Furthermore, by conducting logistic regressions analyses with the time spent to complete the survey and the perceived difficulty of the ECWM answer format we hope to gain some insight in the reasons for these response errors. Finally, we manipulated the format of the sensitive questions to investigate their effects on the prevalence estimates. In Study I we compare questions versus statements, and in Study II a factual versus judgmental questions. We hypothesized that the non-incriminating wording of the question in the factual format would encourage respondents to admit non-compliance with COVID regulations, and thus yield higher prevalence estimates than the incriminating wording of the questions in the judgmental format. The paper is structured as follows. This section reviews the moment estimator of \[ 26 \], and uses it to demonstrate that the ECWM is not capable of detecting informed cheating. Next a binary logistic regression model is derived, which is used to conduct the goodness-of-fit test. A moment estimator is derived for the ECWM by \[ 26 \] through fitting a separate model to each sub-sample separately. The model for the ECWM is given by. In matrix notation the model is given by. We now show that the statistical model of the ECWM accounting for informed self-protection is not identified. Let us first consider the situation without informed cheating under model Eq 5. This MLE can be used to obtain a prevalence estimate of the sensitive characteristic, but can also be used to estimate the parameters of a logistic regression model \[ 36 , 37 \]. A goodness-of-fit test is performed by comparing the log likelihoods of the intercept-only model and the model with a covariate denoting sub-sample membership. Model 10 is converted into a logistic regression model by the specification of the logistic function. The model is estimated by maximization of the log likelihood function. These variances are on the logit scale, but if so desired they can be transformed to the probability scale by use of the delta method. If a boundary solution exists, the likelihood ratio statistic will be zero whereas the value of G 2 statistic will be greater than zero. The likelihood ratio statistic has an approximate chi-squared distribution on 1 degree of freedom, and a significant value provides evidence for instruction non-adherence. To evaluate the performance of the ECWM with the number sequence randomizer, three independent studies in non-athlete populations were conducted in For a summary of the survey design and participants allocation to different survey formats in the three studies, see S1 Table. The participants in the three studies were recruited via the Prolific Academic Platform. Prolific is an online research platform that enables researchers to recruit participants for research online in a cost-effective and reliable way. Participants are paid for their contribution at or above the minimum living wage, pro rata for the time estimated for survey completion. There is some evidence that the Prolific participants produce data quality higher than other online platforms \[ 39 \]. Prior to their participation, all respondents consented to participate in our study and written informed consent was obtained. The studies did not involve minors and were subject to full ethical review prior to the data collection from which we obtained favorable ethical opinions. Ethical approval for the data analysis was also obtained from Utrecht University. The target respondents in all studies were English-speaking people over the age of 18 years. Study II was restricted for those who were in the UK during the lockdown period. Of 2, participants who started study II, 6 0. In Study I, the survey started with 1, individuals, 13 0. The Prolific platform was set to prevent the same person participating in the other two studies. Additional information about some background characteristics of the participants in the three studies and power curves to determine minimum sample size required for each CWM condition, can be found in S1 Appendix and S1 Fig , respectively. The questionnaires of the three studies began with a brief introduction explaining the purpose and content of the survey. They were informed that the survey would take less than 5 minutes to complete, and that they could withdraw from the study at any time if they are unable or unwilling to complete the survey. Participants were informed that voluntary completion of the survey constitutes informed consent to participate in the study, and assured that the survey is completely anonymous, so it is totally safe to be honest and answer truthfully. In each study, the survey began with a set of basic demographic questions about age, gender, highest level of education and the level of sport activity. Before progressing to the sensitive questions section, participants were asked to indicate their birth month or to select a month at random if they wish. It was explained to the participants that this information is only used to assign them to one of the experimental conditions with the same content, but without giving details on how this assignment was operationalized. Participants were blinded to the experimental condition allocation, which is detailed in S2 Fig. In Study I, the sensitive behaviour was presented as question or statement, while only the question format was applied in Study III. Respondents in the ECWM condition were asked an additional question about the perceived difficulty of the instructions. The surveys were hosted on a closed survey platform Surveymonkey in all three studies. Data were collected on February 21 st , May 22 nd , and July 7 th , respectively. The first sequence consisted of randomly generated two-digit numbers, and the respondents were asked to memorize one of the numbers. Then a second number sequence of the same length was shown that potentially included all numbers from 1 to These ratios were alternated between questions within each sub-sample. Since the first and second number sequence are not shown simultaneously, it makes it extremely difficult for the respondent to remember and keep track of how many numbers of the first sequence reappeared in the second one. Obviously, this virtually rules out the possibility of informed self-protection. Prolific participants receive payment for completing a survey, thus the more surveys they fill out, the higher their earnings. This probability was set to be zero in Study III. In both conditions the response errors are attributable to survey fatigue, but in the ECWM condition there is the additional risk of non-adherence due to misunderstanding of the instructions or recall errors when using the number sequence randomizer. Furthermore, by regressing the answers to the control question on variables assessing the time spent on the survey and the perceived difficulty of the ECWM instructions, we hope to gain some insight in the reasons for these response errors. This section presents the maximum likelihood prevalence estimates and goodness-of-fit statistics of all studies, followed by an analysis of the control question. Table 2 presents the prevalence estimates and goodness-of-fit statistics of the three studies. The exceptions are Covid-F3, were the difference is not significant, and Drug use2-Q4, were DQ yields a not significantly higher prevalence estimate. Three of these only exceed the critical value of 3. Table 3 presents the difference diff. The p -values of the test statistic z show that there are no significant differences between the corresponding questions, and in contrast to our expectation the factual condition did not yield consistently higher prevalence estimates than the judgmental condition. Table 4 presents the results of the analysis of the control question. For this analysis, the data of the two format conditions of Study I and II were pooled. The percentages of incorrect answers on the ECWM control questions show a clear negative correlation with the length of the number sequence randomizer. Additionally, the highest error rate of This result strongly suggests that part of the errors was due to overlooking the memorized number in the second sequence. These kind of errors may also partly explain the significant G 2 statistics in Study I. The error rates of 3. In an effort to explain the incorrect answers to the control question in the ECWM conditions, we performed a series of standard logistic regressions with the standardized scores of the variables logtime the logarithm of the time to complete the survey and difficulty the perceived difficulty of the ECWM instructions as predictors. To facilitate comparison of the effects sizes, both predictors were standardized. There are no significant effects of logtime , but the effects of difficulty show a clear correlation with the length of the number sequence randomizer. The parameter estimates show that the probability of a response error increases with the perceived difficulty of the instructions, and that this effect becomes stronger as the length of the number sequence randomizer decreases. This result strongly suggests that the response errors are due to a mixture of overlooking the memorized numbers and misunderstanding the instructions, and that probability of the former occurring decreases as the length of the number sequence decreases. A reviewer pointed out that there may be a negative association between education levels of the respondents and the error rates on the control question. In fact, in studies \[ 19 , 22 \] lower-educated respondents were found to produce more errors in the E CWM condition. This paper evaluated the performance of the ECWM in combination with a number sequence randomizer. This latter property allows for a goodness-of-fit test. The number sequence randomizer is proposed as an alternative for the birthday question randomizer, that is commonly used in other applications of the CWM and ECWM. The E CWM with a birthday randomizer has been investigated in numerous validation studies. The E CWM has been shown to provide higher levels of comprehension and perceived privacy protection \[ 19 \] than other randomized response techniques. A potential explanation of these latter results is the experimental character of the sensitive attributes, which either had a zero prevalence \[ 44 \] or were experimentally induced \[ 20 , 22 \]. In general, the above-mentioned validation studies provided evidence for the validity of the E CWM with a birthday randomizer. The central question of the current paper is how the ECWM with the number sequence randomizer relates to the findings of these validation studies. It has already been argued that number sequence randomizer has some theoretical advantages over the birthday randomizer, the main two being the elimination of potential biases due to informed self-protection and due to a non-uniform distribution of birthdays over the days or months of the year. Another advantage that has not been mentioned yet is that the number sequence randomizer is easier to implement when multiple sensitive questions are asked, as was the case in the three studies we presented in this paper. It is no problem to present the respondent with five different sets of number sequences, but it is much more difficult to come up with five different birthday questions. Our study yielded some promising empirical results that are inline with the evaluation studies of the E CWM with birthday randomizer. The latter result can also be taken as an indication that random responding has not played a major role, because in that case the ECWM would have yielded higher prevalence estimates than DQ. In general, the goodness-of-fit tests showed a satisfactory fit. Three of the six significant G 2 statistics only exceeded the critical value of 3. These results suggest that respondents may not have fully understood the instructions on the first question, and that the number sequences are more prone to response errors than the shorter number sequences. This last explanation seems to be confirmed by the analysis of the control question, which suggests that shorter number sequence results in less response errors. Somewhat to our surprise we found no differential effects for judgmental versus factual question formats. A potential explanation for this finding is that aside of the wording of the questions, other factors like the appropriateness and context of the question also play an important role in the willingness of the respondent to answer honestly. In a study on the effects of the wording of the sensitive questions on the willingness to give honest answer, \[ 49 \] found mixed results. The statistical contribution of this paper concerns the development of a maximum likelihood estimator for the prevalence of the sensitive characteristic, and its extension to a binary logistic regression model that can be used to investigate the effects of covariates on the probability of having the sensitive characteristic. We have illustrated its use by performing a logistic regression with sub-sample membership as covariate, and shown that the results are equivalent to conducting the goodness-of-fit test. The current study has some limitations. Firstly, since the validation only involved comparisons of the ECWM and DQ conditions, we have no empirical evidence for the superiority of the number sequence randomizer over the birthday randomizer since our study lacked a condition with the birthday randomizer. A second limitation of our study is that as yet we do not have a satisfactory explanation for the misfit of some of the ECWM questions, except for the conjecture that the misfit on the first questions may be due to insufficient comprehension of the instructions. However, a misfit for ECWM questions is not specific to the number sequence randomizer. For example, \[ 28 \] observed a misfit on three of the eight ECWM questions using the birthday randomizer. Finally, our observation that the error rates on the control question increased with the length of the number sequences led us to the conclusion that the longer sequences are more prone to errors than the shorter ones. Due to the confounding of randomization probabilities and the studies, with Study III having the lowest error rates and a randomization probability of 0 and Studies I and II having the highest error rates and randomization probabilities of 1, it cannot be ruled out that the randomization probabilities had an effect on the error rates. To avoid such confounding, we have set the randomization probability of the control question to 0 in one sub-sample, and to 1 in the other sub-sample in new surveys we are conducting. In summary, the ECWM with the 5-number sequence randomizer exhibited a good performance in estimating the prevalence of sensitive issues. Its design offers a good combination of features that collectively ensure, as much as possible, that the data it generates are valid and reliable. The ECWM with number sequence randomizer reduces the risk of response biases since it does not offer an obvious strategy for self-protective responses, while its use of two sub-samples stills allows testing for other forms of response bias. With its relatively simple instructions and its short length, the 5-number sequence randomizer also reduces the risk of response errors. Furthermore, it is also well suited for the anticipated large scale applications, for instance, international sport events. As a tool for WADA, a sequence of questions with incremental sensitivity is recommended, along with a control question to provide an indication of the degree to which the respondents understood the instructions. All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. Using these tables, one can reproduce the results described in our manuscript. Partial funding for the collection was provided by Kingston University London Impact Funding, and Hampshire County Council as part of a separate project. There was no additional external funding received for this study. The funders had no role in any aspects of the study or publication. The funder provided support in the form of salaries for authors \[AP and MC\], but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. PLoS One. Find articles by Khadiga H A Sayed. Find articles by Peter G M van der Heijden. Contributed equally. Werner Pitsch : Editor. Received Nov 30; Accepted Dec 14; Collection date Open in a new tab. SE diff. Click here for additional data file. S2 Fig. Allocation of respondents to experimental conditions. S1 Appendix. Background characteristics of the participants in the three studies. S1 Table. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Drug use1-Q1 : Have you ever been drug tested, for any reason? Drug use1-Q2 : Have you ever used nutritional or herbal supplements for reasons other than health? Drug use1-Q3 : Have you ever used controlled psychoactive drugs? Drug use1-Q4 : Have you ever used controlled sport drugs without medical need to enhance your athletic performance? Drug use1-S1 : I have been drug tested, at least once, in my life including breath alcohol tests. Drug use1-S2 : I have used, at least once, nutritional or herbal supplements for reasons other than health for example to make you more alert, help with weight loss. 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