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This study aimed to address how multiple risk factors that were previously related and derived from ecological levels, when taken together, could explain child-to-mother and child-to-father violence. A total of Spanish adolescents girls who had committed CPV, with a mean age of At contextual exosystem level, peer deviance was indirectly related to both types of CPV. At family level microsystem , the strongest direct predictor in both models was parental ineffectiveness in applying discipline. An additional direct path to child-to-mother violence was the use of corporal punishment. The models highlight the complexity of the variables involved in the development of CPV. Los modelos subrayan la complejidad de las variables involucradas en el desarrollo de la VFP. Cite this article as: Hoyo-Bilbao, J. Child-to-parent violence CPV is recognized as a major social problem worldwide Holt, Numerous studies have been conducted in several countries, such as the United States e. Following a review of the available definitions, Pereira et al. There is controversy regarding the magnitude of the problem e. Therefore, the discrepancies among CPV studies make it difficult to represent its magnitude. In clinical and offender populations, the rates of physical CPV range from All data were derived from studies that have used a similar evaluation criterion CPV evaluated by means of self-report instruments with frequency response scales. Addressing CPV requires an explanatory effort. One of the most cited models is the Nested Ecological Model developed by Dutton and studied by Cottrell and Monk These cited authors postulate that there are determinants at each level of the model: macrosystem e. These levels are interrelated and may lead to the development of CPV. However, this model is limited in terms of the difficulty in evaluating the influence of the variables related to the macrosystem Ibabe, To date, it also lacks empirical support. However, only a few studies have integrated the analyses of different types of factors. Among the contextual factors studied, socioeconomic level and peer influence are emphasized. The negative influence of deviant peers on CPV has been noted in numerous investigations e. Among the family factors, exposure to domestic violence e. In this sense, the relationship between interparental conflict and CPV has also been identified e. Additionally, the disciplinary strategies used by parents have been identified as risk factors of CPV. The CPV has been related to severe disciplinary styles, such as physical and psychological punishment e. Substance abuse by adolescents is also one of the most studied individual variables. In this case, there is a clear consensus on the relationship between substance abuse and CPV e. Several studies suggest some temperamental characteristics, such as impulsivity, as common features of adolescents engaged in CPV Calvete et al. The trait of anger expression has also been linked to CPV Kethineni, As Bobic points out, researchers rarely combine various levels of CPV risk factors in an integrated framework, which can potentially blur CPV understanding. Similar to other types of domestic violence e. In this way, researchers could expand the knowledge about how multiple factors derived from different ecological levels are interrelated to explain the CPV variance. The objective of the present study was to empirically analyse the influence of a wide range of potential risk factors that have previous empirical support derived from different ecological levels. The first level studied is the exosystem or contextual level, which refers to environmental influences, such as the context in which a family is embedded or socioeconomic status. The third level is the ontogenic or individual level. Thus, according to the Nested Ecological Theory developed by Dutton , the three levels analyse how they can explain child-to-mother violence and child-to-father violence. These models can provide valuable empirical information to guide specific explanatory theories. Furthermore, they help in developing prevention strategies and more effective interventions in dealing with CPV. The decision regarding which potential predictors to include in the models was guided by existing studies and by attempts to represent three of the four ecological levels that were defined by Dutton Due to the difficulty in empirically evaluating the variables that are related to the macrosystemic level e. At the contextual level exosystem , peer deviance and socioeconomic status were included. Consistent with previous studies, it is expected that peer deviance is positively associated with CPV in both models e. Some studies have indicated a higher prevalence of CPV among families with a high e. Other studies have found that CPV is associated with a low socioeconomic status e. In addition, some studies have found no relationship between socioeconomic status and CPV e. Given the inconsistencies in the results of previous studies, this relationship was analysed in an exploratory manner. The family level microsystem included exposure to family violence, direct victimization at home, marital conflict, climate or context of the implementation of disciplinary measures ineffectiveness of parental discipline, parental stress, and conflict between parents in applying discipline , mode of the implementation of disciplinary measures parental impulsiveness and self-conflict in applying discipline , parental support, positive parental control, psychological punishment, and corporal punishment. In congruence with previous studies, it was expected that exposure to family violence Calvete et al. Therefore, in this case these variables will be expected to be positively related to CPV. In addition, there is empirical evidence on the relationship between physical and psychological punishments and an increase in CPV e. Because low parental support Calvete et al. Finally, the individual level ontogenic included sex, impulsivity, trait of anger expression, and substance abuse. Additionally, extraversion and emotional instability were introduced into the models since these two factors have traditionally been most closely related to aggressive behaviour in child and adolescent populations e. Findings on the relationship between sex and CPV were inconclusive. It seems that the relationship between sex and CPV differs by the type of violence exerted. Whereas girls tend to exercise more psychological CPV e. Thus, gender is expected to be related to CPV in different ways: in girls CPV will be associated with emotional variables and in boys it will be associated with behavioural variables. In total, adolescents participated in the study. Previously, the minimum sample size was calculated for an estimated r of. According to these criteria, the minimum sample size was The objective was to explore how a wide range of potential risk factors are related to one another to explain CPV in clinical and offender samples. However, there was great difficulty in accessing adolescents who were in psychotherapeutic centres for CPV treatment; in addition, there was little variability in aggression toward parents between them. Therefore, to increase the variability of the sample and to be more representative, two different sources were used. Firstly, offenders were recruited from eight Spanish specialized closed or semi-closed institutions for adolescents who had shown aggression toward their parents. The criminal record of all adolescents contained only family violence. In addition, of those adolescents 63 had been reported by either their families or the police. After the complaints were made, the juvenile prosecutor imposed probation and a stay in a protected centre that specialized in the treatment of CPV for 11 months to 54 adolescents. The remaining nine received probation and were ordered to attend psychotherapy for the cessation of CPV. The rest were placed in internment programs, with an approximate duration of 12 months; an agreement was established with the centres to comply with psychotherapeutic treatment. Secondly, a subsample of adolescents who had committed CPV was selected from a larger sample of adolescents. Specifically, only those adolescents who had committed physical violence e. More than half had married parents Only 3. For the first sample, the main Spanish specialized closed institution for adolescents who had aggressed their parents and the Council of Bizkaia Spain were contacted. The study design and its objectives were explained. After active parental consent was obtained, the adolescents received the same information as their parents. Only six parents refused to allow their children to participate in the study. All but two teenagers agreed to participate in the study. The interviews were conducted in the institution where the adolescent was allocated to comply with the legal disposition or internment program. Each session lasted an hour. To ensure confidentiality, a procedure was used to dissociate data. Thus, two different databases were created, both with access codes. For the second sample, five high schools and one university centre in Bizkaia and Navarra, Spain were contacted. The schools were chosen by random cluster sampling and invited to participate in the study. When they agreed, the researchers invited all students between 12 and 18 years old to participate. The adolescents received the same information as their parents. None of the parents refused to allow their children to participate in the study; all of the adolescents agreed to participate in the study. The evaluations were conducted in their classrooms for an hour each. Some flyers that explained the study were shared, which included a web link that allowed access to the study and asked for the completion of an online questionnaire. Those who were over 18 years old were excluded. To obtain their passive informed consent, they were required to read the information and click the accept button online. They were informed that their participation was voluntary and anonymous and that their responses were confidential. Participants were recruited during and All participants completed socio-demographic information, including their sex, age, origin, parental and marital status, and socioeconomic level. Regarding their socioeconomic level, the adolescents completed the items concerning professional occupations of their mothers and fathers separately. The questionnaire consists of 20 items, 10 referring to the father and 10 referring to the mother. Of the 10 items, 3 assess physical violence i. The 4 response categories range from 0 never to 3 6 or more times. This scale contains 10 items with 4 response categories ranging from 1 almost never to 4 almost always , which measure two subscales anger temperament and anger reactions. The emotional instability and the extraversion dimensions contain 11 and 10 items, respectively. The 5 response categories range from 1 almost never to 5 almost always. The Spanish version has demonstrated good psychometric properties in adolescents Soto et al. Peer deviance was measured with the questionnaire developed by Barnow, Lucht, and Freyberger This questionnaire has shown adequate internal consistency in the Spanish population Calvete et al. The adolescents indicated how often they consumed alcohol, marijuana, hashish, cocaine, speed, ecstasy, and ketamine, with a 6-point scale ranging from 1 never to 6 daily. Parental support received in childhood was measured with the support subscale of the Family Socialization Questionnaire SOC The subscale contains 22 parallel items measured on a 5-point Likert scale. This scale includes 6 parallel items e. Both subscales have 8 parallel items each, with 5 response categories ranging from 0 never to 4 almost always or always. The 5 response categories range from 0 never to 4 almost always or always. Three dimensions were administered: frequency 6 items and intensity 7 items of marital conflicts and perceived stability of the causes of conflicts 4 items. The response categories are 0 false , 1 sort of true , or 2 true. Each scale contains three items, and both scales refer to three types of violence physical, verbal, and threat. The response scale range from 1 never to 5 every day. The percentage of missing values in the whole sample was estimated, and only 0. The participants reported their childhood disciplinary experiences with their mothers and their fathers separately. Thus, to create a global measure of both parents the means of mother factors and father factors were averaged, creating a single dimension, with the following factors: parental support, positive parental control, psychological aggression, corporal aggression, parental impulsiveness, self-conflict in applying discipline, ineffectiveness of parental discipline, parental stress, and conflict between parents in applying discipline. Two models were estimated, one for CPV toward the mother and the other toward the father. First, a backward step-wise regression was performed with SPSS 23 to begin constructing the structural equation models, starting from the simplest, where each variable predicted CPV uniquely and significantly. In the first step, all potential predictors were included, in which the dependent variable was CPV toward the mother and toward the father. The significant predictors were used as direct predictors in the initial steps of developing both models. The backward step-wise regression analysis was used, following the work by Cohen, Cohen, West, and Aiken , which indicates that backward elimination is less sensitive than forward elimination to suppressive effects among predictor variables. For CPV toward mothers, the significant regressions were impulsivity, anger, psychological aggression, corporal punishment, ineffectiveness in applying discipline, exposure to family violence, and substance abuse. For CPV toward fathers, the significant regressions included impulsivity, psychological aggression, corporal punishment, ineffectiveness in applying discipline, and substance abuse. Second, each additional predictor was added to the model, beginning from the basic model for direct predictors. To know the relationship between predictors and their initial position in the model i. This helped determine how to construct a more complicated model in which first-order predictors in turn were related to other predictors. Consistent with the results of the step-wise regression analyses, initially all second-order predictors were introduced, relating to at least one of the direct predictor variables already included in the model. For constructing each model, the modification indices of the statistical software EQS 6. It should be noted that the plausibility and the parsimony of the relations between predictors were primordial to the construction of the models. Thus, those predictors that were significantly related to the dependent variable were maintained by at least another predictor. In other words, if the only way that the variable was retained in the model was the prediction of another predictor of the model without a path in the direction of the CPV, that variable was discarded from the model. Furthermore, if predictive relations were not conceptually plausible, they were discarded. Third, once all the hypothesized relationships were analysed, the inclusion of all those variables that had not been retained in the previous step was revaluated. They were introduced those as performing the predictive role of some of the variables already included in the model or of the dependent variable CPV toward the mother and CPV toward the father. All models were analysed by using EQS 6. To increase the power of the effect size and reduce the number of model variables to be parsimonious, the anger-trait subscales and marital conflict were combined into a single variable. Table 1 shows the internal consistency, means, and standard deviations of all measures. Table 2 shows the zero-order correlations for all the variables of the study. Almost all the variables were statistically related to child-to-mother violence, except gender, extraversion, and positive parental control. In the case of child-to-father violence, nearly all the variables had a statistically significant relationship except extraversion, marital conflict, positive parental control, and self-conflict in applying discipline. As shown, the highest correlation was established between child-to-mother violence and child-to-father violence. To conduct the tests, the influence of a wide range of potential risk factors, with previous empirical support and organized with three ecological levels contextual or exosystem, family or microsystem, and individual or ontogenic , has been analysed empirically. The results show the two final models with adequate fit indices. Overall, the hypotheses have been supported, specifically those referring to the direct relations of individual variables e. Additionally, of the 20 tested variables, 14 have been retained in both models. It is also interesting to note the potential risk factors that were not retained in either model. It is possible that these variables became non-significant after controlling for the effect of other relevant variables for CPV. The most surprising of the variables that were not retained in the model was direct victimization at home, which has been repeatedly related to CPV e. However, it is necessary to consider the multivariate context in which it was tested and the possible overlap with other variables, such as physical punishment a variable that kept a close and direct relationship with CPV in both models. In addition, they had more similarities than differences, indicating similar roles of individual, family, and contextual variables, regardless of at whom the aggressive acts were directed. The most important results are discussed in terms of the variables involved in CPV at three ecological levels Dutton, At contextual level exosystem , the indirect effect of peer deviance on child-to-mother violence and child-to-father violence must be noted. This is through substance abuse; at the same time, peer deviance is influenced by family variables, such as parental support or parental ineffectiveness. At family level microsystem , ineffectiveness in applying parental discipline plays a key role, since it keeps a close, direct, and positive relationship with CPV in both models. Nevertheless, the administration of corporal punishment is only directly related to CPV in the model for mothers, whereas in the model for fathers, corporal punishment operates through individual variables, such as substance abuse or peer deviance. These findings are consistent with previous results showing that the use of corporal punishment predicts aggression toward mothers but not toward fathers e. In any case, these findings do not mean that imposing corporal punishment has less repercussions than the variables that maintain a direct relationship with CPV in both models impulsivity, substance abuse, and ineffectiveness in applying parental discipline on the development of CPV. Hence, the direct paths are few in both models; therefore, the influence of the variables with strong previous empirical support is through other variables. For example, exposure to family violence is a clear risk factor supported by multiple studies e. At the individual ontogenic level, the following variables that show a direct relationship to CPV in both models are the most important. Peer influence on boys is greater than on girls, and this variable is indirectly related to CPV. In this way, some studies have found that peer influence in relation to aggressiveness is greater on adolescent boys than on adolescent girls e. Thus, boys may be more influenced by peer approval or disapproval of their aggressive behaviour compared with girls, especially in adolescence. On the other hand, emotional instability is greater in girls, and this variable in turn is indirectly related to CPV. This idea is supported by studies that have found a relationship between emotional instability and aggression among girls, whereas in the case of boys emotional instability is only related to depressive symptomatology e. After discussing the results in reference to each ecological level, it is necessary to discuss and interpret the set of variables in greater depth from an integration perspective. Thus, both models indicate that contextual variables, such as peer deviance, are influenced by family and individual variables. At the same time, adolescent individual variables, such as impulsivity, emotional instability, or anger, in addition to relating to one another, are influenced by parental stress or impulsiveness when educating; as a whole, they can influence substance abuse. Family contexts in which there is a high level of violence or high marital conflict also affect the disciplinary strategies that are used by parents. Those family contexts are related to psychological and physical punishments that, as indicated previously, affect the care or supervision of the context of adolescents, specifically in their friendships. Thus, to prevent CPV, it is important to act from an integrative perspective while considering certain factors, such as the influence of peers deviance and family contexts, which have proven influential in the development of CPV, while also considering individual factors, such as impulsivity or substance abuse. Those factors could be the key to the development of this type of domestic violence when an adolescent lives these family situations. Firstly, the data are based on self-reports of adolescents. Given that CPV is a problem that involves two agents—adolescents and parents—it would be important for future studies to obtain the reports of parents or to test multivariate models for the data based on such reports. Secondly, the assessment protocol was quite extensive and could have been influenced by fatigue. Future studies should include instruments with adequate psychometric properties but with fewer items and could counterbalance the order of the questionnaires. Thirdly, the sample is not representative, which complicates the generalization of the results. Future studies should replicate these results with additional samples. Fourthly, there are significant differences between the samples of the adolescents from the court and those from the subsample of the community population regarding socioeconomic level. Although the relationship of socioeconomic level in the development of CPV is unclear, future studies should control the possible differences in socioeconomic level within the samples. Fifthly, apart from being transversal in nature, the models are limited to analysing direct relationships, without being able to analyse the moderation or possible mediation between the risk factors. Finally, although an important part of CPV variance is explained by the interrelation of the set of variables studied, there are many variables, such as other individual factors e. Therefore, future studies should replicate the results and include a greater number of variables. The final models of this study emphasize the complexity of the variables involved in the development of CPV, in addition to the interrelation and influence of different levels in terms of CPV. Although the models are exploratory, it is believed that they provide valuable empirical information with clinical implications. There are a large number of variables significantly related to CPV; however, there are few direct relationships. From a clinical perspective, the results highlight the importance of positive educational practices that do not involve the use of corporal punishment, as well as the importance of educating youth in a climate of non-violence. Strategies based on monitoring and control, such as positive reinforcement of appropriate behaviour and use of non-aversive punishment e. For example, ineffective support, acceptance, and supervision e. Similarly, the results highlight the importance of addressing the individual characteristics of adolescents, such as impulsivity and substance abuse. At the same time, perhaps it should be considered equally significant to teach adolescents the proper skills to manage their behaviours and emotions, with a view to reducing their impulsivity in order to stop and think before acting. In addition, the results may also have a forensic interest. From this perspective, forensic workers need to intervene in and explore social and family contexts of adolescents that may have a negative influence. The findings highlight that it is important to intervene on both individual and ecological levels and to understand the complex relations between them. This study could not have been carried out without thevaluable collaboration of the participants adolescents residentsof specialized institution for CPV and adolescents of the generalpopulation sample. In addition, we would like to thank thecollaboration of Amanda Holt in the review of the manuscript. Cite this article as: Del Hoyo-Bilbao, J. Multivariate models of child-to-mother violence and child-to-father violence among adolescents. Armstrong, G. Risk factor profile of youth incarcerated for child to parent violence: A nationally representative sample. Journal of Criminal Justice, 58 , Barbaranelli, C. Manuale del BFQC. Big Five Questionnaire Children. Firenze, Italy: O. Organizzazioni Speciali. Barnow, S. Correlates of aggressive and delinquent conduct problems in adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 31 , Beckmann, L. Risk and protective factors of child-to-parent violence: A comparison between physical and verbal aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1 26 , Bentler, P. EQS 6. Bobic, N. Adolescent violence towards parents. Boxer, P. Brezina, T. Teenage violence toward parents as an adaptation to family strain: Evidence from a national survey of male adolescents. Youth Society, 30 , — Byrne, B. Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Calvete, E. Adicciones, 21 , Borrajo, E. Journal of Adolescence, 36 , Child-to-parent violence: Emotional and behavioral predictors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28 , Reciprocal longitudinal associations between substance use and child-to-parent violence in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 44 , Journal of School Psychology, 56 , Predictors of child-to-parent aggression: A 3-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 51 , Child-to-parent violence: An exploratory study of the roles of family violence and parental discipline through the stories told by Spanish children and their parents. Violence and Victims, 30 , Infancia y Aprendizaje, 34 , Caprara, G. Early emotional instability, prosocial behavior, and aggression: Some methodological aspects. European Journal of Personality, 7 , Carrasco, M. Cohen, J. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Contreras, L. Family profile of young offenders who abuse their parents: A comparison with general offenders and non-offenders. Journal of Family Violence, 29 , Child-to-parent violence: The role of exposure to violence and its relationship to social-cognitive processing. Coogan, D. Child-to-parent violence: Challenging perspectives on family violence. Child Care in Practice, 17 , Cornell, C. Adolescent to parent violence. Urban and Social Change Review, 15 1 , Cottrell, B. When teens abuse their parents. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Fernwood Publishing. Adolescent-to-parent abuse. A qualitative overview of common themes. Journal of Family Issues, 25 , Del Barrio, M. Madrid, Spain: TEA. Del Hoyo-Bilbao, J. Corporal punishment by parents and child-to-parent aggression in Spanish adolescents. Psychometric properties of the Child-to-Parent Aggression Questionnaire in a clinical sample of adolescents who abuse their parents: Prevalence and gender differences. Violence and Victims. DeWall, C. The general aggression model: Theoretical extensions to violence. Psychology of Violence, 1 , Dutton, D. An ecologically nested theory of male violence towards intimates. The domestic assault of women. Edenborough, M. Living in the red zone: The experience of child-to-mother violence. Elliott, G. Perceived mattering to the family and physical violence within the family by adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 32 , Gallego, R. Child-to-parent violence and parent-to-child violence: A meta-analytic review. Psychosocial Intervention, 20 , Psicothema, 24 , Family socialization styles and child-to-parent violence in Spanish population. Gelvan de Veinsten, S. Young violence towards parents. Interdisciplinaria , Una propuesta de medida de clase social. Grych, J. Child Development, 63 , Holt, A. Adolescent-to-parent abuse: Current understandings in research, policy and practice. Bristol, UK: Policy Press. Practitioner accounts of responding to parent abuse—a case study in ad hoc delivery, perverse outcomes and a policy silence. Hong, J. The social ecology of adolescent-initiated parent abuse: A review of the literature. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43 , Hu, L. Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6 , Ibabe, I. Behavioral problems and depressive symptomatology as predictors of child-to-parent violence. The contribution of family relationships to child-to-parent violence. Journal of Family Violence, 31 , Child-to-parent violence: Profile of abusive adolescents and their families. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38 , Violencia filio-parental. Adolescent violence against parents. Iraurgi, I. Izaguirre, A. Children who are exposed to intimate partner violence: Interviewing mothers to understand its impact on children. Kennedy, T. 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January Pages 11 - Abstract This study aimed to address how multiple risk factors that were previously related and derived from ecological levels, when taken together, could explain child-to-mother and child-to-father violence. Del Hoyo-Bilbao. Introduction Child-to-parent violence CPV is recognized as a major social problem worldwide Holt, Contextual Factors that are Associated with Child-to-Parent Violence Among the contextual factors studied, socioeconomic level and peer influence are emphasized. Family Factors that are Associated with Child-to-Parent Violence Among the family factors, exposure to domestic violence e. The Present Study The objective of the present study was to empirically analyse the influence of a wide range of potential risk factors that have previous empirical support derived from different ecological levels. Method Participants In total, adolescents participated in the study. Procedure For the first sample, the main Spanish specialized closed institution for adolescents who had aggressed their parents and the Council of Bizkaia Spain were contacted. Instruments All participants completed socio-demographic information, including their sex, age, origin, parental and marital status, and socioeconomic level. Modelling Strategy Two models were estimated, one for CPV toward the mother and the other toward the father. Results Descriptive Analyses To increase the power of the effect size and reduce the number of model variables to be parsimonious, the anger-trait subscales and marital conflict were combined into a single variable. Table 2 Pearson Correlations for all the Variables of the Study. Figure 2. Final Model for Child-to-Father Violence. Acknowledgements This study could not have been carried out without thevaluable collaboration of the participants adolescents residentsof specialized institution for CPV and adolescents of the generalpopulation sample. References Armstrong, G. Introduction Method Results Discussion. Go top. PlumX Metrics. Your request has been saved Notify me when a new issue is online I have read and accept the information about Privacy. For more information, see our cookies policy Aceptar. Conclusions and Implications The final models of this study emphasize the complexity of the variables involved in the development of CPV, in addition to the interrelation and influence of different levels in terms of CPV. VV-D Calvete, E.

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