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Author: P. The present number carries the first part of the paper which presents research about the poppy and opium among the ancient Greeks as well as among other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean region. The succeeding number of the Bulletin will carry the second part of this paper in which the authors present numismatic evidence about the opium poppy, discuss the etymology of opium, the ways of extracting the raw drug, the methods of taking it, and the symbolic meaning that it came to acquire. The poppy plant and its hypnotic qualities were well known in the classical period of ancient Greece and are mentioned by contemporary writers. It was regarded as a magic or poisonous plant and was used in religious ceremonies. At a later date it was also employed in the art of healing. The ancient Greeks portrayed the divinities Hypnos Sleep , Nyx Night , and Thanatos Death wreathed with poppies or carrying poppies in their hands. Sometimes ears of corn were added to the bunch of poppies. Poppy-capsules, with or without the addition of ears of corn, are also found on figurines, bas-reliefs, vases, tombstones, coins and jewellery. Legend has it that Demeter, in despair over the seizure of her daughter Persephone by Pluto, ate poppies in order to fall asleep and forget her grief. According to Ovid, she supplied Triptolemus also with poppies in order to induce sleep. The poppy became one of the symbols of this goddess. On a basket at Eleusis it is portrayed in combination with ears of corn. The poppy-head, with or without ears of corn, is found in the hands of statues of various gods of the nether world, and because of the multiplicity of its seeds, it is considered to be a symbol of abundance and fertility. We propose to refer in detail, in the relevant chapters, to the spread of the poppy over the region primarily under review, down to the first centuries A. The present study consists of an enquiry, from a purely 'pharmaco-historical' viewpoint, into matters connected with the poppy. This enquiry has naturally been limited to the data we have been able to glean from a scrutiny of archaeological works available to us, or from an investigation of the findings of archaeological research in Greece. On various points, more specifically those depending principally on archeology, our conclusions are not definitive and may require further archaeological research. The first written record of the poppy is found in Hesiod eighth century B. According to commentators on Hesiod, \\\\\\\\\[ 2 \\\\\\\\\] this city received its name from the extensive cultivation of the poppy in the area. Others, however, hold that it was because it was there that Demeter first discovered the fruit of the poppy, \\\\\\\\\[ 3 \\\\\\\\\]. Homer in the Iliad \\\\\\\\\[ 5 \\\\\\\\\] also mentions the poppy:. In the Odyssey, Homer mentions \\\\\\\\\[ 6 \\\\\\\\\] a drug, nepenthes, which Helen gave to Telemachus and his comrade to make them forget their grief. She had obtained the drug from the Egyptian Polydamna, wife of Thon:. Medicines of such virtue and so helpful had the daughter of Zeus, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, had given her, a woman of Egypt, where earth the grain-giver yields herbs in great plenty, many that are healing in the cup, and many that are baneful '. Theophrastus B. It seems that either he was unaware of it or doubted its existence, when he wrote: 'they appear to be inventions of the poets '. This view is supported by other writers before and after Theophrastus who believed that the word 'nepenthes' referred allegorically to the blandishments and charms of Helen. Diodorus Siculus \\\\\\\\\[ 9 \\\\\\\\\] gives added information to the effect that it was reported that in his day the women of Egypt used the drug because only the women of Diospolis had in very ancient times discovered this antidote to anger and grief. According to Theophrastus, l0 the Mantineian root-doctor, Thrasyas wrote that from the juices of the poppy and hemlock an easy and painless death could be obtained. Hippocrates or B. He distinguishes between the white, fire-red, and black poppy. In regard to its therapeutic qualities he mentions the unripe, \\\\\\\\\[ 11 \\\\\\\\\] ripe, \\\\\\\\\[ 12 \\\\\\\\\] and baked \\\\\\\\\[ 13 \\\\\\\\\] poppy. He also mentions poppy-juice \\\\\\\\\[ 14 \\\\\\\\\] as a hypnotic, narcotic, and styptic drug; also as a cathartic. We also find the poppy mentioned in Aristotle B. Theophrastus also makes frequent mention of the poppy, \\\\\\\\\[ 17 \\\\\\\\\] and lists the following categories: the black or horned poppy, \\\\\\\\\[ 18 \\\\\\\\\] the 'flowing' poppy \\\\\\\\\[ 19 \\\\\\\\\] and the Heraklean poppy. Nevertheless, it is clearly evident from the above references that when the capsule of the poppy was split, juice flowed and was collected. As regards the extraction of plant-juice in general, he writes that it is done 'through the stalks as with the spurge and the lettuce and most plants, or from the roots, or thirdly from the head, as in the case of the poppy. The poppy is the only plant from which the juice is extracted from the head; this is peculiar to it. From the former plants the juice oozes out by itself like tears; this happens with the juice of the tragacanth, which need not be slit. In most cases the juice emanates from cuttings. Sometimes the juice is collected at once in jars, as is done with the juice of the spurge or the poppy. Herakleides of Pontus B. Theocritus \\\\\\\\\[ 26 \\\\\\\\\] B. Diokles of Karystos fourth century B. Diagoras \\\\\\\\\[ 28 \\\\\\\\\] third century B. Dioskourides adds that experience proves this to be untrue. Pliny the Elder says that both Diagoras and Epistratos rejected the use of opium for ear-ache, considering it to be a potent poison. Andreas of Karystos third B. In some texts mention is made of the adulteration of the so-called Egyptian opium in Alexandria. This opium is referred to later as Cyrenaic opium Cyrenaicum and Theban opium Thebaicum. Nikandros of Kolophon B. Celsus first century A. Scribonius Largus first century B. Helmreich, Leipzig, The 'flowing' poppy, so called because 'it sheds its flower rapidly'. The cultivated or garden poppy \\\\\\\\\[ 34 \\\\\\\\\] whose seeds are used in baking bread. In this category poppies with an elongated head and white seeds are called pouched. He also mentions wild poppy with an involuted and elongated capsule and black seed which is called the 'jar' poppy, and also by some the 'flowing' poppy 'because the juice flows from it'. Another variety is wilder and more poisonous with a more elongated capsule. When the leaves and capsules of these poppies are boiled in water, he writes, they induce sleep. As regards the juice he states that 'when it is cooled and dried and taken in small quantities like vetch, it is harmless, induces sleep, aids digestion, relieves coughs and stomach troubles; when more of it is taken it plunges one into lethargic sleep and is very injurious '. He considers that juice to be most potent which is thick, 'heavy in odour, soporific, bitter to the taste '. Some cut off the leaves and capsules, grind them in a press, rub them in a mortar, and make tablets of them. This product, he says, is called mekonion and is less potent than opium. By slitting the fruit with a small knife 'after the dew-drops have become well dried. The knife must be drawn round the crown without piercing the fruit within; then the capsules must be directly slit on the sides near the surface and opened lightly, the juice drop will come forth on to the finger sluggishly but will soon flow freely'. The horned poppy, growing by the sea and wild. The foaming poppy, called the Herakleian poppy by some. According to Professor E. Emmanuel, who has made a special study of the Constantinopolitan Code of Dioskourides, \\\\\\\\\[ 38 \\\\\\\\\] the 'cultivated poppy' corresponds to the papaver somniferum , the 'wild poppy' to the papaver orientalis , the 'flowing poppy' to the papaver hybridum, the 'foaming poppy' to the gratiola officinalis , and the 'horned poppy' to the glaucium luteum. Galen second century A. Regarding the use of opium, \\\\\\\\\[ 44 \\\\\\\\\] Galen states: 'Opium is the strongest of the drugs which numb the senses and induce a deadening sleep; its effects are produced when it is soaked in boiling water, taken up on a flock of wool and used as a suppository; at the same time some can be spread over the forehead and in the nostrils. If it is mixed with a drug that mitigates its power, its effects are greatly reduced. Athenaios second century B. Pausanias \\\\\\\\\[ 46 \\\\\\\\\] second century A. In this are mentioned also corresponding products defined by previous researchers Coh. On the products recorded by Dioskourides, research has been undertaken by J. Berendes in his work: Arzneimittellehre des Dioskourides, Stuttgart , pp. Polemon, according to Athenaios XI d : 'Polemon in his treatise on the divine capsule says: 'After that, he performs the ceremony and grasps the objects from the recess and distributes them to those above carrying the vessel around. This vessel is an earthenware vase with many little cups glued within it. These contain sage, white poppies, grains of wheat, grains of barley, peas, vetches, lentils, beans, spelt, oats, fig pudding, honey, oil, wine, milk, unwashed sheep's wool. And he holding it up as though he were carrying the sacred basket tastes the contents' '. Alex Tschirch \\\\\\\\\[ 48 \\\\\\\\\] places the use of opium in the fourth-third century B. Apart from the Latin authors already quoted in relation to Greek authors, it is relevant to mention the statement made by Pliny the Elder, in which he says that the black poppy is hypnotic through the juice produced by the slitting of its bud at the beginning of its flowering. This is Diagoras's interpretation, but according to Jollas the slitting should take place after the flowering, at the bland time of day three hours after sunrise when there is no longer any dew on the poppy. It is recommended that the notches should be made on the lower part of the capsule and calyx; it is the only type of plant on which the notches are made on the capsule. The juice, as in the case of every plant, is collected on wool, or, if the quantity is small, is broken off with the thumb-nail It is then allowed to thicken and is kneaded into small loaves that are dried in the shade. This juice not only acts as a soporific, but if taken in large doses induces death through sleep, and it is called opium. Pliny also says that Diagoras and Erasistratos rejected it, forbidding it to be instilled into the eyes because it was a lethal poison and injurious to the eyesight, and that Andreas added that it did not induce blindness immediately, because in Alexandria it was adulterated. But he goes on to say that later, its use was not excluded in the famous preparation called diakodion from the poppy-capsule. He also says that tablets are prepared from powdered seeds, and are taken in milk as an hypnotic. Opium mixed with rose-oil is used to cure headaches; this mixture is also used as eye-drops for the easing of pain. Mixed in woman's milk it is applied to the members of arthritics, as are the leaves also. Mixed with vinegar it is used as a cure for erysipelas and wounds. In any case Pliny does not approve of the use of opium in eye-washes, and definitely not in preparations to reduce fever. He further mentions that the black poppy in wine is prescribed for adbominal ailments, and that by boiling the capsules and leaves an infusion is made called 'mekonion', whose effects are far milder than those of opium. Virgil \\\\\\\\\[ 51 \\\\\\\\\] also mentions the poppy frequently, as do many other Latin authors. That the poppy was known from the earliest times and is mentioned in the earliest recorded authors Homer, Hesiod et al. It is not precisely established when the poppy-juice began to be used, though it was known in the fourth century B. The juice, extracted by notching the capsule, which from the time of Pliny was known as opium; and. Mekonion, an emanation from plant leaves and fruits of the poppy, used later, and which was less potent than opium. Under the same name - mekonion - according to Hippocrates, the juice was pressed out and made into small tablets. That the notches were at first circular and cut around the crown; and that later they were cut in straight vertical lines in the lowest section of the capsule Dioskourides and Pliny. That the poppy, including its leaves, blooms and capsule, was used in making various kinds of preparations, unadulterated or in mixtures, eye-washes, poultices and tablets. That the use of opium as an hypnotic drug taken by nasal inhalation of vapours - the most suitable method of inducing sleep- was known, apart from its use through internal, oral consumption and external application by means of poultices and eye-washes, and as a suppository. Nec non et lini segetem et Cereale papaver tempus humo tegere et iamdudum incumbere aratris, dum sicca tellure licet, dum nubila pendent I urunt, Lethaeo perfusa papavera somno. IV That the opium and the products of the poppy were hypnotic, pain relieving and narcotic, and that its juice mixed with hemlock induced a speedy and painless death. It has already been pointed out that scant data exist concerning the poppy in antiquity and in Greek mythology. They are preserved in the works of a few of the ancient writers the Argonautica of Orpheus, Hesiod, et al. It has also been mentioned that it is only from the ninth century B. Our warmest thanks are due to Professor Sp. Marinatos for the wealth of information with which he has provided us concerning the various stages of our present study Crete, Kozani, Ithaca, Attica and elsewhere. We also warmly thank, in addition to those mentioned in special chapters, N. Karouzos, Member of the Academy; Professors N. Kontoleon, Max Robinson, and H. Wedeking; the Curators of Antiquities, N. Verdelis and S. Dikaios and B. Yiannoulatos, Dr. Kardara, Miss Char. Barla, Mrs. Rhea Kotionis and Miss K. To all these persons we are grateful for their willing assistance in the task of compiling the bibliography. We set forth below our findings in separate chapters, each dealing with a sector of the Hellenic Mediterranean area. We have included comparative information pertaining to the non-Hellenic parts of the eastern Mediterranean, as well as India. The surest and most ancient evidence concerning the poppy, the extraction of opium, and the use of both not only in Crete but in the whole Greek area, is that first uncovered in July as a result of an observation made on the gods of Gazi by Professor P. Kritikos, one of the authors of the present study. This was subsequently communicated to the Academy of Athens. It refers to one of the five figurines representing the Minoan goddess with 'hands uplifted ', which were discovered at Gazi by Professor S. Of these five figurines, the first and largest, mm in height not counting the pins which rise 2 cm higher has been called by Professor Marinatos 'The Poppy Goddess, Patroness of Healing ', because it bears on the head three movable pins in the likeness of heads of the sleep-inducing poppy papaver somniferum Fig. The joint author of this study, P. Kritikos, has examined the figurine now in the Museum at Herakleion with a view to determining its pharmacological implications, and has formulated the following conclusions: \\\\\\\\\[ 54 \\\\\\\\\]. The vertical notches in the capsules, which are more deeply coloured, belong to one of the typical forms of poppy used for producing opium. The carving of the capsules, then executed vertically, is different from the circular carving usual today, or the mixed pattern, circular around the top and then vertical as that of the figurine Dioskourides, Pliny. Of especial interest is the artist's rendering of the colouring in the notches: it corresponds with the colour of the dried juice of the poppy. Especially impressive are the folds in the cheeks giving a smiling effect, and the lifelessness of the parting of the lips. Marinatos writes that other analogous representations of the Minoan goddess had already been found, with snakes wound around her forearms or doves upon her head the goddess of the snakes; a chthonian or household deity,' and the goddess of the doves: a deity of the sky or of love. The goddess with the uplifted hands is frequently found over a wide area of the prehistoric world and was probably handed down from the Late Minoan III period to that of early Hellenic civilization in which the same goddess is found under various identities. He expressed the opinion that a tubular vase discovered at the same site, and belonging, according to S. Marinatos \\\\\\\\\[ 55 \\\\\\\\\] , to the equipment of the goddess, was used for preparing inhalations of opium. This receptacle had a base and a hole on the sides, and bore a remarkable resemblance to those used in Java in earlier times for the inhalation of the vapours of opium \\\\\\\\\[ 56 \\\\\\\\\] Fig. It is to be noted that the goddesses were found in a room presumably sacred enclosed on all sides, doorless and windowless, and obviously approached from above. On the ground were found the remnants of a heap of coal. The poppy and the extraction of its opium through a vertical notch was already known at least at the time of the making of the statuette, viz. This manner of notching survived in the East Indies up to the beginning of our century. The significance of the poppy and of opium was such that to it should be attributed the special posture of the goddess with uplifted hands. From the other objects found near the goddess receptacles and coals , it must be inferred that the opium was taken by the inhalation of vapours. The goddess appears to be in a state of torpor induced by opium; she is in ecstasy, pleasure being manifested on her face, doubtless caused by the beautiful visions aroused in her imagination by the action of the drug. For this reason he proposed that she should be called 'the goddess of ecstasy '; and lastly. The passivity of her lips is also a natural effect of opium intoxication. The use of the poppy during the Minoan age was more widespread as is shown by further archaeological discoveries in other parts of the island. Thus, in a grave at Pachyammos in the district of Hierapetra, was found jar, shown in Fig. On the body of the jar the poppy head is portrayed between the sacred horns and is guarded by birds. This reveals the sacred nature attributed toa. On the lid of the jar is the picture of a bird tearing apart the capsule of the poppy. Capsules similarly guarded by two birds are seen on a primitive Attic jar \\\\\\\\\[ 60 \\\\\\\\\] cf. The foregoing observations lead to the conclusion that the poppy and opium were known to the Minoans. Christian Zervos \\\\\\\\\[ 62 \\\\\\\\\] writes that the poppy must be added to the list of the sacred plants of the Minoans because its capsule contains various narcotic substances which they considered as symbols of immortality. We must note with especial emphasis the original peculiarity of the censers, commented upon by Professor Marinatos, \\\\\\\\\[ 63 \\\\\\\\\] and other objects in the Herakleion Museum yielded by excavations in Crete, which from the nature of their workmanship may be assumed to have been used for taking opium by nasal inhalation. There is no recorded evidence of the spread of the poppy and the use of its juice in Cyprus as far as wecan ascertain from the bibliography available to us, while archaeological finds do not give a clear picture of the poppy. Nevertheless a related study by R. Merrillees \\\\\\\\\[ 64 \\\\\\\\\] concerning trade in opium towards the end of the Bronze Age in the Levant \\\\\\\\\[ 65 \\\\\\\\\] is of especial interest. In examining Cyprian vases discovered in Egypt, \\\\\\\\\[ 66 \\\\\\\\\] which were hand-made Fig. According to Merrillees, the capsule shape of the vases, in the absence of identifying inscriptions, was indicative of their content; and, since no leather or metal prototypes of these have been discovered, poppy capsules must have served as such for their manufacture. He writes that his view is supported by the dimensions of the vases with bases I and II, analogous to those of the poppy head, and by their chestnut colour corresponding to that of the notched capsule. In some vases of the end of the fifteenth century B. In certain vases of a transitional period both types of decoration are found. The latter type of decoration, always according to this writer, \\\\\\\\\[ 68 \\\\\\\\\] betokens an improvement in the method of taking opium: by means of an instrument on which many metallic blades were fixed close together, the capsule was notched more speedily and over a greater surface, thus permitting the extraction of as great a quantity of opium as possible. The painted white parallel lines must be the representation of the juice emanating from the corresponding notched surfaces; the juice would be white at first, then would become brown when it dried and thickened and was transformed into opium. In fact, according to S. Gabra, \\\\\\\\\[ 69 \\\\\\\\\] both the opium poppy and the pomegranate poppy were known to the Egyptians from antiquity. Merrillees concludes from archaeological and bibliographical data that the original appearance of opium in Egypt in the form of preparations can be traced back to the XVIIIth Dynasty. These preparations were imported from abroad. The shape of the vases indicates that they must have been imported in liquid form, which would be easy owing to the solubility in water or wine of the components of opium. He further mentions Gabra's comparison of the shape of porcelain containers with that of the poppy capsule, showing that the Egyptians must have been aware of the plant during the period of the XVIIIth Dynasty. He also relates the early importation in large quantities of vases with circular base I and the subsequent importation in lesser quantities of those with base II, after the Tel-el-Amarna period in which the porcelain copy-vases are found. He further notes the reference made by Sciaparelli \\\\\\\\\[ 71 \\\\\\\\\] to the effect that in the tomb of the architect Cha, who died during the reign of Amenhotep III, there was found an alabaster bucket containing vegetable oil ' medicato con ferro e con opio ', i. Finally, he concludes that during this last period in Egypt the cultivation of the poppy and the extraction of opium must have been known, so that it was no longer necessary to import it. Merrillees's findings lead to the conclusion that during the period when the vases of category II were being made the capsule notches were no longer vertical but convergent. We note, however, that both types of notching - the older and the newer - remained in use for the extraction of opium down to our century. In addition to these vases of Cyprian origin found in Egypt, a number of capsule-shaped vases have been found in Cyrpus itself as we were able to ascertain during our visit to the island. These were discovered in tombs in the course of excavations undertaken in previous years, and, more recently, by the Cyprus Archaeological Service. Among these vases of the Late Cyprian I period B. On some of these vases e. As the juice becomes solid, it appears to stand out in relief over the notch in a manner corresponding with the lines on the vase. The double line on the neck of the vase shows the joint of the stalk to which the handle of the vase was attached. Finally, in Cyprus, a necklace was discovered of multicoloured glass beads to which an amulet was attached cf. One of the beads shows incisions corresponding to the notches in a poppy capsule. We wonder whether this case is not similar to that of the Ephesus brooches cf. In any case, we draw the attention of specialists to the similarity in shape of the Cyprian vases described, which are approximately of the same period. Many similarities are found in the various symbols and manifestations of a religious nature in the two civilizations. Archaeological research has shown that the opium poppy was also known at Mycenae, and the most beautiful representation of its capsule appears on the famous golden signet-ring discovered on the Acropolis at Mycenae \\\\\\\\\[ 75 \\\\\\\\\] Fig. On this ring a seated woman receives an offering of three poppy capsules. According to Nilsson, this must be a goddess; behind her a small figure stands gathering fruit from the sacred tree. This shows that the goddess is associated with the worship of trees, 'a goddess of tree-worship, therefore of nature and fertility, sitting beneath the tree itself', according to Professor Marinates. The first 'worshipper' offers the poppy capsules, the second brings lilies, while the third bring flowers. Then Mioan symbols the palladium and the double axe also appear in the composition. Jacobsthal \\\\\\\\\[ 76 \\\\\\\\\] describes such a pin Fig. According to him the head probably represents an apple. It is made of cloudy-brown mountain crystal and is grooved. This pin is also described by Karo. In our opinion, this is a pin with a poppy-capsule head from which the star-shaped crown is missing, probably as a result of oxydation. The notches for the extraction of opium are dearly marked; an apple obviously would not be grooved. Similar to this pinhead is that of a silver pin \\\\\\\\\[ 78 \\\\\\\\\] Fig. Another was found at Vaphio in Laconia Fig. According to some archaeologists, \\\\\\\\\[ 80 \\\\\\\\\] these pins because of their great length do not conform to the usual type of pin used for clothing or hairdressing. We wonder whether they may not have been needles used in the process of smoking opium. Similar to this are amulets displayed as exhibits Nos. T et T in the same museum. Furthermore, we should like to draw the attention of the experts to the similarity in shape and size of certain small containers aryballoi. These are usually believed to have been used for perfume. We suggest, however, the possibility that preparations of opium may have been placed in them, particularly if we accept Merrillees's theory about capsule-shaped vases, which we believe to be correct. The discovery of more containers, the contents of which might by modern methods be identified on the basis of an infinitesimal quantity of substance, could possibly shed light on this question. It is a known fact that a similar vessel containing oil mixed with opium was found in Egypt cf. From what precedes, it may be deduced that the poppy and its incision for the extraction of opium were known at Mycenae at least in the sixteenth century B. Late Mycenaean I Age. For example, clay figurines of Tirynthian and Argive goddesses have been found which are reminiscent of those of Corinth and which appear to us to be fashioned in the shape of a capsule. Similarly, figurines of the First Archaic Protoarchaic Period have been found in which the goddess holds a round fruit. This, according to Waldstein, \\\\\\\\\[ 81 \\\\\\\\\] may represent an apple; we do not believe this definitely proved. It is true that Pausanias states that Hera held a pomegranate in her hand, but the same author reports that at Sikyon there was a statue of Aphrodite by Kanachos in which the goddess was represented as holding a poppy. Charitinides, writing about the pomegranate, believes that in the case of many figurines there is a confusion between that fruit and the poppy-capsule, and states that in the Museum at Argos there are three intact late-geometric pomegranates with a wrinkled surface. Also at Argos were found capsule-shaped vases similar to those at Mycenae, as well as small alabaster or clay containers. Especial interest attaches to the pins, many of which are to be seen in the Museum at Argos, and whose heads may be assumed to be in the shape of poppy capsules. In some of these the body of the capsule is composed of semi-precious stones, as in those referred to by Waldstein; \\\\\\\\\[ 83 \\\\\\\\\] they are comparable to those at Mycenae, Tiryns and Corinth. The contact indicated by these archaeological findings between Egypt, Cyprus, Crete, and cities of ancient Greece Mycenae, Argos, Eleusis, etc. This is made clear by the findings in many predominantly Hellenic areas. The origin of some of these is not clearly established. They may have come directly from Egypt or been carried by Phoenicians to Egypt and thence exported to Greece. On a sheet of bronze in the shape of a tray a nude is shown Fig. According to Dugas \\\\\\\\\[ 84 \\\\\\\\\] and Oikonomos, \\\\\\\\\[ 85 \\\\\\\\\] this is a pomegranate; Mueller \\\\\\\\\[ 86 \\\\\\\\\] believes it to be the capsule of the hypnotic poppy. According to Klinz, \\\\\\\\\[ 87 \\\\\\\\\] the tray belongs to the seventh century B. In our view, the fruit represents the capsule of a poppy, because of the presence of a circular line in the middle of the capsule corresponding to one of the methods of incising the capsule in order to obtain opium. At Tegea weights were discovered whose shape according to Dugas \\\\\\\\\[ 91 \\\\\\\\\] was that of a pomegranate. We believe that many of them Fig. Possibly they were used for weighing opium. From the texts we already know that Helen of Sparta made use of the nepenthes drug \\\\\\\\\[ 92 \\\\\\\\\] which we believe to have been a concoction of opium. Dawkins \\\\\\\\\[ 93 \\\\\\\\\] mentions many findings from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta which, when compared with the objects discovered in Corinth, are, in our view, related to the poppy-capsule. In the pendant shown in Fig. The bone pendants \\\\\\\\\[ 95 \\\\\\\\\] shown in Fig. Furthermore, seventh century B. They were as follows:. Bronze pendants in the shape of a pomegranate bud or of a poppy seed, according to Thompson \\\\\\\\\[ 97 \\\\\\\\\] shown in Fig. We consider them to be clearly representations of poppy-heads, particularly since they bear the characteristic notches for the extraction of opium. A silver-gilt pendant \\\\\\\\\[ 98 \\\\\\\\\] in the shape of a poppy head with slits on it. All of these pendants were dedicatory offerings and correspond to those found in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia. We also note the existence of many pins \\\\\\\\\[ 90 \\\\\\\\\] in Vaphio in Laconia, in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia at Sparta Fig. By some these pin-heads are presumed, in our view wrongly, to represent pomegranate buds. From the texts already quoted we know that there was in the vicinity of Corinth an ancient city called Mekone by Hesiod, and later named Sikyon. According to some commentators on Hesiod, \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] the city owed its name to the extensive cultivation of the poppy near its site. Others consider that it was called Mekone because Demeter there first dicovered the fruit of the poppy. Professor Marinatos \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] mentions that a local legend held that Demeter presented the poppies in person to the city. The only definite information given by a classical author is that in Pausanias \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] according to which a statue of Aphrodite stood in the temple of the goddess at Sikyon; in one hand the goddess held a poppy, in the other an apple. Many reproductions of the poppy-capsule in clay have been found and are now deposited in the Museum at Old Corinth. A typical reproduction of the capsule is that found by Verdelis \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] at the sanctuary of Solygeia near Galataki Fig. This is beautifully fashioned, and does not bear notches. Verdelis considers it to have been an offering connected with the worship of Hera. It is 6. The appearance of the capsule when viewed from above, as well as that of capsules in Fig. The spread of the poppy in this area is especially interesting. The object shown in Fig. In the area of ancient Pheneos the bronze statuette shown in Fig. According to N. Verdelis, Keeper of Antiquities in Attica, who discovered it, it represents ashepherd or peasant holding the fruit of the poppy in this right hand. Throughout the Peloponnese, and also in other areas of Greece, a great quantity of pins has been found, the heads of which are characteristically capsule-shaped and sometimes notched horizontally or vertically for the extraction of opium. Some of the more representative of these are shown in Fig. Gabra \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] notes that there is a relationship between the shape of the pendants and beads that have been found in great number, and that of the poppy-capsule. Bronze statuette from ancient Pheneos holding the fruit of the poppy in its hand. Pins made of bone found in many parts of Greece with the pin-heads in the form of the poppy-capsule. Bone or brass capsule-shaped pendants \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] have also been found. Payne describes one of these as having the shape of an inverted poppy-capsule. He mentions that similar pendants have been discovered in Samos; a report of these discoveries has not yet been published. Many of the pendants are of the seventh century B. In the whole Corinthian Gulf area, from Sikyon to Perachora, the poppy was known and greatly honoured as early as the ninth century B. Its capsule is found reproduced on brooches, pendants, necklaces or beads adorning images of gods. Of particular interest is the statue of Demeter found in the ancient Agora in , on which Oikonomos reported \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] and which dates from the end of the fifth or the beginning of the fourth century B. Demeter is seated and, according to Oikonomos, is holding in her hand an ear of wheat and a poppy Fig. During the Agora excavations a proto-Attic pitcher was discovered \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] on which two birds are portrayed; between them is drawn a circle of spokes at the end of which are fruit which seem to represent poppy-capsules Fig. Eleusis, in Attica, was more especially set apart for the worhsip of Demeter, goddess of agriculture, and her daughter, Persephone. On the famous basket on the head of the Caryatid of the Small Propylaia Fig. From the foregoing it is clear that the poppy and the wheat-ear were both attributes of the divinities of Eleusis. Many consider that both, appearing on statues and various other representations, were symbols of plenty. In the Hippocratic period the poppy was known to the Macedonians, and its existence is mentioned as an ornament on the rooftop of the Philippeion erected at Olympia in honour of Philip. Its hypnotic properties were known at this time as is mentioned by the tutor of Alexander the Great, Aristotle. A small bronze object found at Kozani and now in the Museum in that town - obviously of local origin and of the geometric period B. The spherical section of the object presents a resemblance to the poppy-head, bearing the characteristic notches for opium extraction. The whole appearance of the object gives the impression of a direct connexion between it and the therapeutic action of the poppy. The figure seated on the capsuleshaped base is either pointing to or is holding his head with his left hand. It is possible, we think, that this work suggests the well-kown pain-relieving and hypnotic effect of the drug. We have already seen from the texts that the poppy was, according to some writers, used as a means of euthanasia the Keian custom , and also that hemlock with poppy produces a swift and painless death. Professor E. Homman Wedeking was kind enough to inform us by letter that at the Heraion of Samos a number of reproductions of the poppy have been found, in clay and in ivory. Publication of these finds has not yet been made but he has sent us the two photographs in Fig. We believe that some of these were probably buttons on a peplos and others ornaments of a sceptre. In some there are characteristic notches to represent extraction of opium. To complement our present account of the poppy and opium among the Greeks we shall refer briefly to the spread of these among other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean. The Egyptians, the Sumerians and their successors, the Assyrians, the Hebrews, the Phoenicians and the Persians developed considerable civilizations during this period. In fact, the Phoenicians with their vessels contributed greatly, with other maritime peoples, to the communication and exchange of views in this area. Older writers state that among the primitive Egyptians and Semites the poppy and its culture were either unknown or had remained unobserved, \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] and that the poppy was introduced from abroad and particularly from Asia Minor. In the most ancient monuments or wall inscriptions of the earliest temples of those peoples, the flower, the fruit and the seeds of the poppy were absent. Schweinfurth \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] holds that the poppy was not an ancient Egyptian plant but was introduced into Egypt shortly before the Roman era. From the texts it may be deduced that the hypnotic poppy was introduced and cultivated in Egypt and Cyrenaica at a later period. There is fuller information about the cultivation of the poppy and the preparation of opium in Egyptian Thebes - whence the term Theban opium - about the time of the birth of Christ. Galen writes that the preparation of opium had been taught to mortals by the Egyptian god Thoth, who in later years was called Hermes Trismegistos. On the other hand, Gabra has shown the exact contrary, namely that the poppy and opium were known much earlier; he bases his view on the following:. During Davis's excavations at Biban-el-Molouk in two ear-rings Fig. In the reasons he gives for so defining them, Gabra states that the grooves appear to be identical with the notches of the poppy-capsule. Davis further mentions the discovery at Tel-el-Amarna of blue porcelain vases in the shape of a poppy-capsule, and concludes that the plant was of especial economic importance to Egypt in the Greco-Roman period, as is deduced from the writings about the garden poppy of Dioskourides, Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder and Serapis. Moreover, mention is made of opium-seeds in the Greco-Roman papyri of Oxyrhynchus and Zeno, while in the Petrie III papyrus it is asserted that the cultiva tion of the poppy and other plants was spread over the whole area. According to some authorities, the poppy-juice is mentioned under the name seter-seref in the Ebers papyrus B. According to Gabra, \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] the poppy is there referred to as shepenn \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] and its description coincides with that of the later Coptic medical papyrus, known as the Chassinat papyrus in which, as Gabra states, opium is mentioned twenty-two times as being used principally for external treatment in the form of eye-drops, ointments, or powders. That the use of the products of the poppy was continued through the centuries and that the term opium, as has been previously stated, is found in the Greco-Roman period and was adopted by the Copts;. That opium was used in antiquity as a pain-reliever and narcotic medically, as it is used today; and. That opium was very well known and indeed a famous drug in Egypt, where many districts were noted for its preparation. Merillees's study previously mentioned cf. The first and most ancient testimony concerning the poppy is given on a small tablet of white clay found about fifty years ago during excavations at Nippur undertaken by the University of Pennsylvania Archaeological Mission. Nippur was the spiritual centre of the Sumerians \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] and lies to the south of modern Baghdad. Among these tablets, one, deciphered by Samuel Noah Kramer and Martin Leve, is considered to be the most ancient pharma. Harry G. Anslinger and William F. Tompkins \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] report that on the clay tablets of the Sumerians it is written that the juice of the poppy was collected very early in the morning, which is evidence that the Sumerians cultivated the poppy in order to extract opium 5 years B. These authors are of the opinion that the Babylonians, inheritors of the Sumerian civilization, were those who, with their expanding empire, extended their knowledge of the properties of the poppy eastwards to Persia and westwards to Egypt where its use as a curative drug for human diseases was known very early, from the year 1 B. Terry \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] states that he was informed by Professor R. Dougherty, Curator of the Babylonian Collection at Yale University, that opium must have been known to the Sumerians because they had an ideogram, ' Hul Gil ', corresponding to this drug. We believe that these writers, possibly through a typographical error, state that opium was already known in B. The written records discovered are of the end of the third millenium B. Reginald C. Thompson \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] has no doubt that opium was known to the Assyrians in the seventh century B. The tablet in question includes a considerable number of prescriptions collected by a Sumerian physician, and it is reported that it was written around the end of the third millenium B. From B. He reinforces this view with the following quotation from a cuneiform tablet: 'Early in the morning old women, boys and girls collect the juice, scraping it off the notches of the poppy-capsule with a small iron blade, and place it within a clay receptacle '. He adds: ' It seems that nothing has changed in the method of collecting opium '. Glenn Sonnedecker \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] mentions that the ' Hul Gil ' is found in earlier Sumerian tablets of the fourth millenium B. Dougherty \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] believes that it denotes opium. Terry \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] shares Thompson's view and adds that in the Assyrian Berbal the term Arat. This, according to Thompson, is the Assyrian name for the juice of the poppy and suggests that it may be the etymological origin of the Latin papaver. The Eastern goddess Nisaba is often shown in Assyria and Babylon with poppies growing out of her shoulders. Neligan \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] states that ' No great imagination is required to suppose that in the Sumerian or the early Babylonian period some neighbouring peoples living in the future land of the Persians were aware of so amazing a drug as opium. It is more than likely that the ancient Persians inherited this from Assyria or Babylon, just as they acquired a great part of their civilization by the conquest of those states. Yet it is only in the sixth century B. In any case the cultivation of the poppy was very ancient. The Hebrews, as a people living in an area where the poppy and its juice were known from remote antiquity, cannot but have been cognizant of their uses. Many studies have been made on the plants of the area, and are included in certain books of the Bible, and particularly in the Talmud. Professor Marti \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] of Switzerland has studied these and avers that among them are included the papaver somniferum or setigerum seeds and oil. Rindley \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] mentions various plants from the Bible and among them ' rosch ' head , which he interprets as being the capsule of the papaver setigerum. This, according to him, was the gall mixed with vinegar which the Hebrews gave to Christ on the cross in order to alleviate His suffering. Furthermore Miss Walker \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] states that the gall which was added to the vinegar was the juice of the hypnotic poppy, called rosch in Hebrew. The poppy was known in Macedonia before the time of Alexander the Great fourth century B. On the contrary, we maintain that Alexander the Great took with him to India the drugs which he used for the needs of his army. This is recorded by the chroniclers of the time. It could be that knowledge pertaining to opium was carried to India by Alexander - not the converse. But there is no proof that opium was used in India during this period, and perhaps a special study should be made on the earliest origins of the cultivation of the poppy in India. In the Far East \\\\\\\\\[ \\\\\\\\\] China and Japan , the poppy is said to have been introduced in the seventh-eighth century A. The texts show that it was unknown there in A. The information gathered from the texts to the effect that opium was not known in India before the seventh century A. Thus, opium, which in the time of Hippocrates was known both in Greece and in Egypt, might well have reached India. Hesiod, Theogony , The Great Etymological Dictionary under 'mekon' poppy. Diodorus Siculus, I Theophrastus, op. On internal diseases, chapter We note that the contradiction between styptic and cathartic may be explained by the fact that the ancients used the term mekonion to include also the juice of the spurge lat. Pliny the Elder A. NH XX He was the first to use the term opium for the juice of the poppy. He describes both products of the poppy, i. Theophrastus op. In the extract quoted above it is the juice of the poppy, i. The Keian custom was euthanasia, practised on the island of Keos. It was practised in other areas also. Those who reached a certain age voluntarily put an end to their life by drinking poison after a ceremonial banquet; thus they avoided the illnesses and pains of old age. Valerius Maximus. III, pp. Most writers mention hemlock as the means of euthanasia in Keos. However, as stated on page 4, Thrasyas of Mantineia affirms that a speedy and painless death can be obtained from the juice of the poppy or of hemlock, and this supports the use of the poppy by the Keans, as aforementioned. Thalysia , The use of the Doric form 'makon' for 'mekon' is obviously the origin of the modern popular name 'makos' given to the poppy in many rural regions of Greece today. Pedacii read Pedanii Dioscoridis Anazarbaei, Opera quae exstant omnia. Wechel, p. On the other hand, in other editions of Dioskourides it is stated that Diagoras says that Erasistratos disapproved of the use for Max Wellmann, Berlin, Nikandros Nicander. Edited by A. Gow and A. Scholfield, Cambridge, , Georgics : Fragment 74, Nicander, Alexipharmaca , Emmanuel apud Alex Tschirch, Pharmakognosie , Vol. A comparative study of the plant drugs portrayed in the Constantinopolitan Code. Nicander in Athenaios XV a Ed. Kaibel, and Nicander's Georgics , frag. Pausanias V Kritikos, Der Mohn, das Opium, u. I, pp. Alexiou, The Minoan goddess with uplifted hands , Doctoral thesis, copy from Vol. XII of the Cretan Chronicles, , pp. On a container of coca leaves from an ancient Peruvian tomb we have a similar portrayal of a smile. This container represents a head revealing a closely similar smile as coca leaves are being chewed. It is known that coca leaves were widely used during religious ceremonies by the inhabitants of Peru. See fig. Journal , , pp. Walter Hahland Neue Denkmaeler des attischen Heroen u. Totenkultes , Berlin , p. Documents Nos. Photographs supplied by B. Karagiorgis, Director of Antiquities, Cyprus. See also S. Archaeological Journal , p. The pin is at the Archaeological Museum in Athens among the Vaphio exhibits, sub. Waldstein, The Argive Heraeum , p. Waldstein, op. Cabra, Bulletin de l'institut d'Egypte 37, , p. We thank Mr. Verdelis for the photograph of the statuette, and we append an extract from his remarks concerning it: ' A bronze statuette of a man standing, representing a shepherd or peasant according to the known type of Arcadian statuettes. It was found in at Triantaphyllia, about 5 kilometres to the south of ancient Pheneos now the village of Kalyvia. It is now in the Nauplion Museum, Exhibit No. We note that the poppy mekon is still known today in Macedonia under the name 'makes', derived etymologically from the Doric form makon. Hall, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 14, , pp. Gabra, op. With regard to the above observation we note that morphine, a component of opium, was unknown; hence its discovery in the ointment presupposes the presence of opium therein. The Sumerians lived in the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates in the lower half of present-day Iraq. They flourished from the fourth to the third millenium B. The Sumerians were responsible for the first written records discovered by the University of Pennsylvania Mission in the form of white clay tablets of varied content economics, politics, law, literature, ethics, zoology, botany, medicine, pharmaceutics, etc. The Babylonians developed a great civilization as is evident from their very ancient monuments cf. Tschirch, op. A picture of this civilization is given by the Kujundschik library belonging to the neo-Assyrian period, and composed of 22, tablets of white clay. These were excavated by Layard and are now in the British Museum. Thompson studied the tablets Assyrian Herbal, London, , pp. He states that they are copies of older texts, deducing this from their similarity to the medical tablets found at Ashur and dated a few centuries earlier. In a catalogue of the commoner plant drugs mentioned, opium occurs forty-two times and holds the thirty-third place as regards frequency of mention. United Nations. Office on Drugs and Crime. Site Search. The poppy and opium among other peoples of the eastern Mediterranean and in India. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. The poppy and opium among the Ancient Greeks. The testimony of archeological discoveries in Greece.
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