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Iran J Psychiatry Behav Sci. Psychotropic agents alcohol, drugs, and illicit substances have an important effect on the occurrence or exacerbation of psychological and behavioral derangements such as criminal activity and mental abnormalities 1 - 5. Similar results have also been reported in several studies from Iran 7 - 9. Some studies reported that drug abuse is a factor that drives people toward perpetration of crimes, and there is a high correlation between these two variables 5 , 10 - In the USA, one study showed that alcohol or drug abusers had a double-chance of committing crimes 6. An important issue which deserves more investigation is the effect of the type of drug abused and different combinations of drugs on criminal activity and its severity 5. In a study by Hemphill et al. Furthermore, Nurco et al. Bennett et al. These illegal substances may affect judgment or behavior directly, or they may lead to criminal behavior indirectly, when the addicted individual craves for the abused drugs There have been very limited studies in Iran on the association between criminal activity and drug abuse. To the best of our knowledge, so far, no study in Iran has been conducted to investigate the correlation between the type of abused substances and criminal activity. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between the type of abused drugs and criminal activity, the psychological status in drug abusers, psychological interventions performed in drop-in centers DIC , and the relationship between alcohol consumption and criminal activity. DIC centers in East Azerbayjan Tabriz, Maragheh, and Mianeh consisted of a government center, six private centers, and 10 mobile teams. The services provided by the DIC centers include: 1 admission and examination of the intravenous drug abuser, 2 provision of counseling services, 3 provision of free disposable syringes, 4 education of the mode of use of provided syringes and injection method, 5 counseling regarding substitution of methadone therapy for drug injections and its benefits, and 6 education of evidence of unsafe behaviors for prevention of diseases We sampled all 10 DIC teams in proportion to the approximate number of addicts in region. The method of sampling was convenient and was continued for 4 months. Razy Hospital group consisted of subjects attended to receive methadone. Enrollment criteria for this group consisted of subjects who had been intravenous drug abusers at least during the last 4 months and who had not been subjected to services of DIC centers. The data collection instruments included a checklist for demographic variables and a structured and trained interview list for drug-related variables and the General Health Questionnaire GHQ The GHQ was used to assess psychiatric in respondents. This questionnaire was developed by Goldberg and Hillier to screen somatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction, and severe depression. A review of studies on the validation of the GHQ in different countries demonstrates its high validity and reliability as a screening tool of mental well-being in the community. This questionnaire was translated into the official language of Iran Persian , which is comprehensible to almost every Iranian, and its validity and reliability were approved in previous independent studies 15 , The estimated intra-class correlation between the test—retest scores was 0. The score for subscales and total score were computed by summing over ranks in related items. For each item, including physical condition, anxiety, and social dysfunction subscales there were seven questions, and hence the possible range of scores for them is 0 - For total score, the possible range would be 0 - Likert scoring method of GHQ showed a cut-off point of 23 scores higher than 23 indicate a mental disorder. The sensitivity, specificity, and the overall misclassification rates are of The interviewers had been totally trained by a physician and an epidemiologist. Furthermore, a gift was offered to each drug abuser in order to motivate the addicted patient for cooperation. The mean score of the GHQ subscales and its total score was compared between DIC and Razy centers using independent samples t-tests. Univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the relationship between psychiatric distress and subjective report of criminal activity with controlled type and number of abused substance, use of alcohol and demographical variables. In this approach, significant variables in the univariate analyses were candidate to enter in the multivariate analysis. Some variables were deleted due to low number of the observations in some of their categories. Average age of intravenous drug abusers was Women constituted a very small percentage of the studied cases: only 4 3. The most common occupation groups in both groups DIC centers and Razy Hospital were unskilled and semi-skilled workers, who constituted 78 It is noteworthy that 24 Forty As for the marital status, 90 Unprotected and of course extramarital sexual relationship among single drug abusers occurred in 39 people It is noteworthy that 35 Self-reported alcohol consumption was 78 The average amount of alcohol consumption among alcoholic cases was 4. One sample t-test was used to compare the status of drug abusers regarding psychiatric distress variables. Based on the cut-off point of score 23 for identifying subjects with mental illness, In this study, the self-reported rate of criminal activity in intravenous drug abusers was Counterfeiting, forgery, and check fraud being an accessory to murder, selling and possession of firearms and rape consisted Frequency distribution of the type of addiction heroin, benzodiazepine, codeine, hashish, and opium according to the committed crimes among intravenous drug abusers is available in Table 2. In order to investigate variables related with criminal activity, a univariate multiple regression test unadjusted analysis was performed initially. Test results are shown in Table 3. For studying the factors involved in criminal history in the presence of possibly confounding variables, multiple regression test adjusted analysis was used. Overall, the low rate of mental well-being was compatible with other similar studies 1 - 5 , Almost half of intravenous drug abusers had a self-reported history of crime. This result was similar to performed studies in this field 3 , 7 , 8. Furthermore, concomitant addiction to both narcotics and alcohol did not increase the chance of criminal activity. On the other hand, some studies 14 , 15 reported that the probability of criminal activity is higher in the case of multiple drug use. Chaiken et al. In addition, Bennett and Holloway showed that abusers who used either cocaine or crack in Los Angeles had a lower criminal activity rate than abusers who used both cocaine and crack. Furthermore, in a study by Bennett et al. Probably this inconsistency is due to differences in culture and lifestyle of the various communities. In the present study, after control of confounding variables, heroin addiction always increased the chance for criminal activity. The findings of available studies also show that the particular drug type combinations are also influential in criminal activity 14 , 15 , and research reports show that investigation of the relationship between crime and particular drug type combinations provides valuable information for anti-drugs strategies and treatment services In this regard, the most important factors are economic factors cost of drugs , lifestyle, and psychopharmacological factors It has been reported that various pharmaceutical combinations may cause higher levels of violence due to their chemical nature In this study, in the presence of confounding variables drug abusers with the lowest level of education had higher chances of committing crimes than drug abusers with higher levels of education. According to the study by Icli et al. It seems that high educational level has been associated with the high of awareness of the obscenity crime consistently. Modeling and control of confounding variables was of strength of the study, but low number of the participants and restriction in generalizability are limitations of this study. This study depicted heroin as a dangerous abuse substance that has a strong relationship with the chance of committing a criminal activity. Heroin abusers in DIC centers had higher levels of mental illnesses, while psychiatric distress had no relationship with criminal activity. As a result, it seems that psychiatric distress is an interaction factor in the effect of heroin on criminal history. This implies a probability of psychopharmacological effect of heroin in the occurrence of mental disorders and the likelihood of criminal activity. J Res Behav Sci. Ahmad Vand M. Tehran, Iran: Payam-Noor University; Burden of medical illness in drug- and alcohol-dependent persons without primary care. Am J Addict. Poldrugo F. Alcohol and criminal behaviour. Alcohol Alcohol. Hemphill RE, Fisher W. Drugs, alcohol and violence in male offenders referred for inpatient psychiatric assessment. S Afr Med J. Mental health status, drug treatment use, and needle sharing among injection drug users. J Fundam Ment Health. A dose-response perspective on college drinking and related problems. Psychopathology in opioid addicts. Psychiatr Clin North Am. The relationship between depressive symptoms and nonfatal overdose among a sample of drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. J Urban Health. The criminality of narcotic addicts. J Nerv Ment Dis. Bennett T, Holloway K. The association between multiple drug misuse and crime. Mental health survey of the adult population in Iran. Br J Psychiatry. Rasulzadeh M. Hakim Res J. Mental health status of hospitals staff in iran. Res J Biol Sci. Comorbidity of common mental disorders and alcohol or other substance misuse in Australian general practice. Med J Aust. Treatment of depression in patients with alcohol or other drug dependence: a meta-analysis. Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Profiling property criminals in Turkey. Cottencin O. Drugs and predatory crime. Drugs and crime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. They also allow us to analyze user behavior in order to constantly improve the website for you. Abstract Background: Sychotropic agents alcohol, drugs, and illicit substances have an important effect on the occurrence or exacerbation of psychological and behavioral derangements such as criminal activity and mental abnormalities. Objectives: The objective was to assess the relationship between psychiatric distress and criminal history among abusers of intravenous drugs, including heroin, benzodiazepine, codeine, cannabis, opium, and ecstasy. Materials and Methods: Criminal activity history and psychiatric distress were evaluated among intravenous drug abusers in drop-in centers DIC subjects and an outpatient service to delivery methadone to the addicts located in Razy Hospital Baghdad, Iraq subjects. DIC addicts group had a better mental well-being compared to the other group, but criminal history rate was similar in two groups. Conclusions: Higher scores in mental well-being questionnaire of DIC addicts suggest the positive effects of psychological interventions. There is a possibility of the involvement of heroin in occurrence of mental disorders and criminal activity. This finding needs further investigations by larger cohort studies. Background Psychotropic agents alcohol, drugs, and illicit substances have an important effect on the occurrence or exacerbation of psychological and behavioral derangements such as criminal activity and mental abnormalities 1 - 5. Objectives The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between the type of abused drugs and criminal activity, the psychological status in drug abusers, psychological interventions performed in drop-in centers DIC , and the relationship between alcohol consumption and criminal activity. Results Average age of intravenous drug abusers was Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Variables and its cofactors: NO. References 1. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4. Leave a comment here:. Cookie Setting We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. GHQ c total score. DIC d :
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