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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4. This study explores the roles, challenges, and collaborative efforts of key stakeholders engaged in addressing substance abuse. Using a qualitative narrative approach, the study examined stakeholder roles in tackling substance abuse in Mogadishu, Somalia. Purposive sampling was utilised to select all available community stakeholders actively addressing substance abuse. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data, allowing participants the freedom to share their experiences openly. The research reveals a significant prevalence of psychoactive substances in Mogadishu, with emerging trends like the misuse of pregabalin driven by accessibility and affordability. Emphasising collaborative efforts, the study highlights the importance of effective communication and coordination among stakeholders to provide comprehensive support for individuals with substance abuse issues. Despite these challenges, such as limited resources, evolving drug trends, and addiction complexity, ongoing efforts and adaptation are crucial. Additionally, the research elucidates the established link between substance abuse and criminal behaviour, emphasising the potential consequences of drug addiction on financial desperation, violent acts, drug trafficking, and other criminal behaviours. The study reveals widespread substance abuse, necessitating adaptable authorities. Collaborative stakeholder efforts are vital for supporting individuals affected. Challenges demand sustained efforts. The study links substance abuse to crime. Effective resolution requires stakeholder unity, prevention programs, expanded treatment access, and adaptation to the evolving drug landscape while supporting those affected. The study shows how important the police, National Medicines Regulatory Authority NMRA , religious leaders, and social workers are in dealing with substance abuse. Each group brings special skills and resources to help with this complex problem. The research points out that there are a lot of psychoactive substances being used in Mogadishu. This includes new trends like the misuse of pregabalin. These substances are becoming more common because they are easy to get and affordable. These groups need to work together to deal with substance abuse. Good communication and coordination between them can make sure people struggling with substance abuse get the help and guidance they need. The study talks about problems like not having enough resources, the changing ways people use drugs, and how addiction is complicated. Dealing with these challenges means putting in ongoing effort and being able to change as needed. The research also shows that using drugs is connected to doing criminal activities. Being addicted to drugs can lead to things like not having enough money, being violent, selling drugs, and other criminal behaviours. Harmful or risky consumption of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illegal drugs, is referred to as substance abuse. Substance abuse is a growing concern in Somalia, with various factors contributing to the problem. Inhalant abuse, including the use of glue and other volatile substances, has been reported among street youth in Somalia. The inhalation of glue fumes is often used to achieve a psychoactive effect and is readily accessible to youth. This practice can have severe health consequences, including damage to the respiratory system and cognitive impairment. Opioid abuse has also become a growing problem in Somalia. The availability of prescription opioids, such as tramadol, has increased, leading to misuse and addiction issues. Drug abuse among marginalised youth has increased crime, including violence against women and girls. The availability of illicit drugs, such as heroin and counterfeit pharmaceuticals, contributes to this problem. Injected drug use carries significant health risks, including the transmission of bloodborne diseases like HIV and hepatitis. Efforts have been made to address substance abuse in Somalia, including community-based initiatives, awareness campaigns, and international organisations providing support for addiction treatment and prevention programs. This study aims to examine the role of stakeholders in addressing substance abuse in Mogadishu, Somalia, using a narrative qualitative design. Purposive sampling was used to select all the available stakeholders who actively address substance abuse in the communities. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were employed to gather data, enabling participants to freely and flexibly share their narratives and experiences. Thematic analysis of the collected qualitative data revealed patterns, commonalities, and disparities in the roles played by various stakeholders in combating substance abuse. The study population consisted of 5 key stakeholders actively addressing Substance abuse awareness campaigns in the communities. Thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews revealed six overarching themes that capture the diverse perspectives and experiences of stakeholders in addressing substance abuse in Mogadishu, Somalia. These themes are:. The prevention and management of substance abuse within the Mogadishu community require a multi-faceted approach involving various stakeholders, including the police force, the National Medicines Regulatory Authority NMRA , religious leaders, and social workers. Each of these entities plays a unique role in addressing this complex issue:. Law Enforcement: The police play a crucial role in enforcing drug-related laws, arresting drug dealers, and dismantling drug trafficking networks. Their presence helps deter drug-related crimes. Community Policing: Engaging in community policing efforts, the police can build trust within the community, gather information about drug-related activities, and work with residents to identify and address substance abuse issues. Diversion Programs: Some police departments may have diversion programs that aim to refer individuals with substance abuse issues to treatment and support services rather than pursuing criminal charges. This approach can help address the root causes of addiction. Regulation and Oversight: The NMRA regulates the pharmaceutical industry, ensuring that prescription medications with potential for abuse are properly controlled, prescribed, and dispensed. Monitoring and Surveillance: The NMRA monitors the pharmaceutical market to detect illegal or unapproved drugs, counterfeit medications, and improper distribution, preventing dangerous substances from entering the community. Public Education: The NMRA can contribute to public awareness campaigns about the dangers of misusing prescription drugs and the importance of responsible medication management. Moral and Religious Guidance: Religious leaders provide moral and religious guidance, emphasising the harmful effects of substance abuse and promoting virtuous, drug-free lives in line with religious teachings. Education: Religious leaders can raise awareness about substance abuse through religious events, sermons, educational programs, and encouraging prevention measures. Support for Recovery: Many religious communities establish support groups and recovery programs, providing individuals seeking recovery with a sense of belonging and purpose. Assessment and Counselling: Social workers can assess individuals struggling with substance abuse, provide counselling, and develop treatment plans. Advocacy: Social workers can advocate for clients within the healthcare and legal systems to ensure they receive appropriate treatment and support. Community Outreach: They may engage in outreach programs to educate the community about substance abuse, prevention, and available resources. There is a significant prevalence of psychoactive substances, including cannabis, pethidine, tramadol, marijuana, cocaine, heroin, glue, and, more recently, high doses of pregabalin. The drug landscape is in a constant state of flux, with new substances and usage trends emerging regularly. In light of these findings, it becomes imperative for authorities to remain vigilant and well-informed about the latest drugs and methods of drug distribution to address these evolving issues effectively, one striking example of this evolving drug landscape is the substantial misuse of pregabalin for non-medical purposes, often driven by the desire to experience euphoric or sedative effects. This misuse frequently involves the consumption of higher-than-prescribed doses of mg and the use of pregabalin without a valid prescription. Collaboration among these stakeholders is crucial for a holistic approach to substance abuse prevention and management within the Mogadishu community. Increase Public Awareness: Launch comprehensive public awareness campaigns to educate residents about the dangers of substance abuse and its impact on individuals and the community. Enhance Prevention Programs: Develop and expand prevention programs in schools and communities to target at-risk youth. These programs can include life skills training, peer support groups, and mentoring. Improve Access to Treatment: Increase the availability of addiction treatment centres and services, ensuring that individuals with substance use disorders have access to proper care, including detoxification, counselling, and rehabilitation. Community Policing: Collaborate with local law enforcement agencies to crack down on drug trafficking and illicit drug markets. Community policing can build trust between law enforcement and residents, making it easier to gather information and address substance abuse issues. Support Families: Establish family support services to help families cope with the challenges of having a loved one struggling with addiction. This can include counselling, support groups, and resources for families dealing with substance abuse. Engage Religious and Cultural Leaders: Encourage religious and cultural leaders to take an active role in addressing substance abuse issues within their communities. Their influence can be instrumental in shaping community norms. Mental Health Services: Recognize and address the mental health aspects of substance abuse. Provide mental health services to individuals with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders. Job Training and Employment Opportunities: Create vocational training programs and job placement services for individuals in recovery, helping them reintegrate into society and gain stable employment. Data Collection and Research: Invest in data collection and research to better understand the local dynamics of substance abuse, which can inform the development of targeted interventions. Strengthening Rehabilitation Facilities: Improve the quality and capacity of rehabilitation centres to accommodate more individuals seeking treatment and to provide evidence-based therapies. Community Partnerships: Foster collaborations between government agencies, NGOs, healthcare providers, and community-based organizations to create a comprehensive and coordinated approach to combat substance abuse. Legislative Reforms: Review and update existing drug-related legislation to ensure that it aligns with current challenges and allows for more effective responses to substance abuse issues. Peer Support Networks: Establish peer support networks for individuals in recovery to provide ongoing encouragement and assistance. Limited Resources: there are limited resources, including personnel, funding, and equipment, to combat substance abuse effectively. This can hinder their ability to conduct thorough investigations, carry out prevention programs, or respond to drug-related emergencies. Changing Drug Trends: The drug landscape is constantly evolving, with new substances and trends emerging regularly. Authorities must stay updated on the latest drugs and drug distribution methods to combat these issues effectively. For example, there is a massive report that pregabalin is used for non-medical reasons, such as to achieve a euphoric or sedative effect. This misuse can involve taking higher doses using it without a valid prescription. Complexity of Addiction: Addressing substance abuse requires a nuanced understanding of addiction as a health issue. Some of the officers may not have the necessary training to differentiate between users and traffickers or to handle individuals with substance use disorders appropriately. While not everyone who abuses drugs engages in criminal activity, there is a well-established connection between substance abuse and various types of crimes. Here are some of the key ways in which drug abuse can lead to criminal behaviour:. Financial Motivation: Drug addiction can be expensive, leading individuals to commit property crimes such as theft, burglary, or robbery to obtain money or valuables to support their drug habit. Violent Crimes: Some drugs can lead to aggressive and impulsive behaviour, increasing the risk of violent crimes such as assault and domestic violence. Drug Trafficking: Individuals involved in drug abuse may become drug traffickers or dealers, engaging in the illegal distribution of drugs, which is a criminal offence. Property Crimes: Drug users may steal or damage property to obtain drugs or as a result of drug-induced impaired judgment. Driving Under the Influence DUI : Operating a vehicle under the influence of drugs or alcohol is a crime that can lead to accidents, injuries, and fatalities. Stakeholders across various sectors unanimously agree on the severity of this issue and its detrimental impact on individuals, families, and the broader community. The primary objective of this study was to investigate and gain insights into the roles played by different stakeholders in addressing substance abuse problems. This study employed a narrative qualitative methodology to understand better the experiences, perspectives, and actions of various stakeholders involved in addressing substance abuse. The research conducted in this study aimed to identify the various obstacles, difficulties, and successful approaches utilised by stakeholders involved in substance abuse prevention, treatment, and harm reduction initiatives. The research results have emphasised the importance of diversion programs, which prioritise the redirection of individuals who are struggling with substance abuse problems towards treatment and support services rather than pursuing legal charges. This alternative methodology exhibits the potential to tackle the underlying factors contributing to addiction effectively. The findings of this study have wide-ranging implications for public health, responsible medication management, and policy considerations. These implications underscore the importance of continued research and collaboration among various stakeholders to maximise their effects further. The dynamic nature of the drug landscape is apparent as new substances and patterns of usage continue to arise regularly. Given these findings, authorities must maintain a state of vigilance and stay updated on the most recent drugs and modes of drug dissemination to tackle these dynamic challenges effectively. A notable illustration of this ever-changing drug environment is the significant misuse of pregabalin for non-medical purposes, often motivated by the pursuit of euphoric or sedative effects. The aforementioned misuse often entails the ingestion of doses exceeding the prescribed amount and the utilisation of pregabalin without a legitimate prescription. The research emphasises the growing prevalence and extensive utilisation of these substances in Mogadishu, attributing their accessibility and affordability as significant drivers of this phenomenon. The research findings also highlight a significant concern regarding the scarcity of resources, including personnel, funding, and equipment, which poses a hindrance to the ability to address substance abuse effectively. The presence of these constraints poses obstacles to conducting thorough investigations, obstructs the implementation of prevention programs, and prolongs the time it takes to respond to emergencies related to drug use. It is imperative to acknowledge and prioritise the resolution of these resource constraints to optimize the efficacy of interventions and establish a comprehensive and proactive strategy in the fight against substance abuse. This study highlights the imperative for regulatory agencies to proactively monitor the pharmaceutical industry to identify and address the presence of illicit or unauthorised drugs, counterfeit medications, and inappropriate distribution practices. Maintaining a state of vigilance is of utmost importance to effectively prevent the infiltration of potentially harmful substances into the local community. Furthermore, it is imperative to engage in collaborative endeavours with international organisations and neighbouring nations to tackle the intricate challenges associated with cross-border drug trafficking effectively. Although not all individuals who abuse drugs engage in illegal behaviours, there exist evident correlations between drug abuse and criminal activity. Drug addiction can result in severe financial distress, thereby precipitating engagement in property crimes. The administration of specific pharmaceutical substances has the potential to induce aggressive and impulsive behaviours, thereby increasing the likelihood of engaging in violent acts. Moreover, it is worth noting that specific individuals who are entangled in substance abuse may also engage in drug trafficking, which is an unlawful and illicit endeavour. The recognition of these connections is crucial for the development and implementation of comprehensive intervention strategies. This discourse highlights the imperative for authorities to adjust and address the ever-changing nature of the drug issue. To effectively address the issue of substance misuse, law enforcement agencies, healthcare providers, and policymakers must devise comprehensive strategies that encompass not only the regulation and dissemination of these substances but also prioritise prevention, education, and rehabilitation endeavours. This research has provided valuable insights into the prevalence and complexities of substance abuse in Mogadishu, Somalia. It highlights the critical roles played by various stakeholders, including the police, the National Medicines and Regulatory Authority NMRA , religious leaders, and social workers, in addressing this multifaceted issue. The study reveals a concerning presence of psychoactive substances in the city, underscoring the need for adaptable and responsive strategies from authorities. Effective collaboration among stakeholders is paramount to ensure comprehensive support for individuals struggling with substance abuse. However, the study also acknowledges the challenges posed by limited resources, the evolving trends in drug use, and the intricate nature of addiction, emphasising the need for ongoing efforts and continuous adaptation. Additionally, the research sheds light on the link between substance abuse and criminal behaviour, further emphasising the importance of tackling this issue. To effectively address substance abuse in Mogadishu, a united front must be established among stakeholders, policymakers, and communities. This collective effort should encompass the implementation of comprehensive prevention programs, the expansion of accessible treatment options, and the adaptation of strategies to the evolving drug landscape. Furthermore, providing support systems for those affected by substance abuse should remain a central focus of all interventions. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Subst Abuse Rehabil. Find articles by Shafii Abdullahi Maalim Mohamed. Find articles by Ahmed Muhammad Bashir. Received Sep 8; Accepted Dec 22; Collection date Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. 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Human trafficking continues to be a significant area of concern in Somalia. Men, women, and children are regularly subjected to forced labour and sex trafficking. Human trafficking in the Somali context usually starts as smuggling, possibly with aggravated circumstances, and then becomes trafficking later along the route, in countries such as Sudan, Libya, or Yemen. Most victims come from south-central Somalia, and their main destinations are Europe, the Gulf states, and Southern Africa. Human movement within the country is extremely high, which is a key factor for exploitation, and it is common for women to act as intermediaries. Al-Shabaab also participates in these practices, particularly in recruiting child soldiers and orchestrating sexual slavery and forced marriage. Children are also often forced into labour in agriculture, domestic work, livestock herding, and selling khat internally and abroad. Somalia is a primary source country for human smuggling, with many people being smuggled across East Africa to Libya and then on to Europe. Somalia is also a prominent transit hub for Ethiopian individuals smuggled. Smuggling networks move people, often on a cyclical basis, with little effective resistance from the state. Owing to regional threats and the current humanitarian situation in Yemen, many Somali expatriates are also seeking to return home, and there remains an active two-way flow of people moving between Yemen, Djibouti, Somalia, and back. In addition, pirates move people across the Gulf of Aden to Yemen. Smuggling networks are typically run by Somalis and are considered a viable source of income. Poverty, economic and social insecurity, and natural disasters remain the principal triggers for migration and human smuggling in Somalia. There has also been a reported increase in the number of extortion schemes in the various destination countries utilized by Somali smuggling rings. Citizens, companies, NGOs, and humanitarian organizations often pay extortion fees to these groups to protect their personnel and physical assets. The taxation of trucks and cars moving through checkpoints is considered one of the most lucrative sources of extortion for Al-Shabaab. The money collected is stored and transferred using domestic financial institutions and mobile money services, facilitated by inadequate financial monitoring. The illicit taxation of agriculture, vehicles, goods, and livestock has made it possible for Al-Shabaab to remain in a healthy financial position. In Mogadishu, extortion has continued in the import, export, and transit of goods through the port facility. ISIS-Somalia also allegedly targets business leaders for extortion in urban areas and uses violence when extortion demands are not met. There is a substantial number of illegal weapons in Somalia, ranging from pistols to machine guns, and these are commonly trafficked by clan militias, Al-Shabaab, governmental groups, and transnational trafficking networks based in the north, particularly Puntland and eastern Somaliland. The country is affected by transnational organized crime, in the form of piracy, human trafficking, and drug trafficking, leading to an increased demand for the illicit supply of weapons. Criminal groups also reportedly receive weapons from local security forces. In addition, a great deal of arms trade is controlled by fishermen based in Aden, Yemen, or on the coast of Somaliland. Pharmaceutical products are the most commonly circulated counterfeit items in Somalia. Despite the fact that counterfeit medicine has caused deaths numbering in the thousands, the trade is perceived as legal by locals, and there is no associated violence. The government has tried to combat the sale of counterfeit medicine by requiring those importing or selling medicine to register with state authorities, but corruption within Somali institutions makes it likely that counterfeiting occurs at a much higher level than reported. Additionally, COVID appears to have driven a notable spike in counterfeit trafficking and the selling of pharmaceutical drugs. Al-Shabaab is believed to be one of the actors financed by the trade of counterfeit goods. In addition, the border between Somalia and Ethiopia is particularly vulnerable to tobacco smuggling owing to weak governance and the presence of terrorist groups. The consumption of alcohol is considered illegal, with the sale mainly conducted on the black market. The illegal trade of flora in Somalia remains a prevalent problem, with illegal charcoal trade being the most prominent form of flora crimes. While there has been no recording of substantial export of charcoal since , the domestic trade in this commodity and the major stockpiles of charcoal within the country accumulated as a result of the ban on charcoal exports continue to raise significant concerns. Charcoal and other timber products are also taxed at certain border crossings, indirectly financing terrorism. While the Somali government has strengthened measures to reduce charcoal exports, the internal trade of charcoal is increasing as more of the Somali population have begun using it owing to rising gas prices. Clan militias are also involved in the exploitation and overharvesting of the Boswellia trees used to produce frankincense, and disputes over the trafficking of this product often become violent. Fauna crime is a moderate criminal market in Somalia. Cheetah cubs are trafficked from Ethiopia, through Somaliland, and on to Saudi Arabia or the United Arab Emirates, where they are in high demand as novelty pets. This route is the most prominent live big cat trafficking flow on the continent. The lion trade is also a concern, although strict fines put in place by destination countries may become effective in reducing demand. The smuggling of live big cats is also linked to internal issues within Somalia; farmers are known to capture cheetahs to sell as a way of redeeming losses resulting from the cheetahs attacking their cattle. In terms of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, Somalia is seriously affected, with foreign nationals driving the trade. The non-renewable resource sector in Somalia is at high risk of illicit trade owing to corruption and limited state oversight. The hydrocarbon exploration industry is vulnerable to considerable corruption related to the issuance of prospecting and mining rights and concessions. Also, the illegal exploration of gold and various gems in the mountain areas of the north does occur, although in a limited quantity. There is no notable domestic heroin market in Somalia, despite its location on the southern route for smuggling opiates from Afghanistan. Somalia has a volatile and continually shifting security environment, which makes the transit of narcotics difficult. Cases of heroin trafficking have however been identified, and the city of Bosaso reportedly has a connection to this activity. Similarly, cocaine trafficking in Somalia is small scale and, in general, hard drugs are not readily available in Mogadishu. Somalia also has very low levels of cannabis consumption and cannabis production for export is small scale. Al-Shabaab harshly punishes cannabis users and growers in the areas of the country it controls, substantially deterring participation in the market. Somalia does not play a major role in the trafficking of synthetic drugs, although there have been recent reports of the growing use of Tramadol. Al-Shabaab limits the use of information and communications technology and prohibits internet usage in the regions under its control, where rules and regulations are difficult to enforce. The lack of a solid regulatory framework for cyber-security also makes Somalia vulnerable to cybercrime. Past incidents in the country include the hacking of government email systems and websites, changing passwords, and destroying data. Pirated software products are common, increasing the risk of malware. Somalia does not have a strong financial regulation structure, and financial crime is widespread. Al-Shabaab is one of the primary actors, owing to its independent funding mechanisms and administrative bureaucracy. The group is known to divert and misuse international relief funds intended for famine victims. Other types of financial crime prevalent in Somalia include fraud and embezzlement, especially fraudulent financial activity and the manipulation of procedures linked to procurement. However, the embezzlement of international funds seems to be decreasing, with the Somali government relying more on international grants rather than taxes and other income sources. Tax evasion is also a significant challenge for the government. In Somalia, Al-Shabaab operates as part of a larger transnational criminal enterprise, engaging in illicit trafficking, extortion, and racketeering. The group has infiltrated many areas of Somali society and regularly commits serious abuses, including forcibly recruiting adults and children and extorting so-called taxes through threats. Al-Shabaab operates a network of checkpoints on roads across southern and central Somalia and collects taxes on various goods. Other militant actors present in the country also make use of illicit economies and taxation to finance their operations, and this in addition to the prevalence of Al-Shabaab makes Somalia one of the states most dominated by mafia-style organizations. Criminal networks, many of which operate in conjunction with Al-Shabaab, are largely led by entrepreneurs who control ethnic and clan-based networks that smuggle commodities out of the country. The absence of effective governance and the rule of law, combined with rampant corruption and an entrepreneurial spirit, has led to a blurring of the lines between legal and illegal activities. Some funds are also invested in real estate and businesses in Somalia and abroad. The Somali state suffers from weak governance and corruption. State officials are involved in organized criminal activities such as the misappropriation of international assistance, taxing flows, and gatekeeping illegal activities for bribes. Criminal interests, groups, clans, and militias have infiltrated all levels of the state. Corruption and collusion involving customs authorities and border guards also facilitate smuggling activities, with small-scale traders, mostly impoverished women, being forced to pay bribes to avoid confiscation of goods. Foreign actors in Somalia are involved in a range of illicit activities, including human and arms trafficking, natural resource exploitation, and political interference. Iranian-made weapons have been smuggled into the country, a trade that involves multiple armed groups and clans, while sophisticated transnational maritime trafficking networks operate to smuggle small arms and light weapons from Iran, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman. Turkey and Qatar are also involved in Somali politics and have faced allegations of supporting radical Islamist groups and being responsible for human rights abuses. Foreign private military contractors, including some hired by Eritrea, contribute significantly to violence and security distortions in Somalia. Most businesses in the country are established through bootstrapping and gathering funds from friends and family, with economic actors organizing themselves based on kinship and religious affiliation. Private entrepreneurs cooperate with political actors and militia leaders to carry out their activities, often undermining the state. Private business owners are also said to play a role in the judicial system, financing some Sharia courts. Somalia is a fragmented country and continues to be characterized by internal tension, violent extremism, extensive displacements, and weak governance. Despite some positive developments — such as the swearing in of new members of parliament in , after a delay of nearly two years — conflicts between federal member states and the federal government, as well as ongoing insecurity caused by Al-Shabaab, have hindered necessary reform. Moreover, corruption, a disillusioned youth, and the privatization of public goods by militia leaders and warlords remain major challenges in the promotion of peace and stability. In fact, Somalia is considered to be one of the most fragile and corrupt states in the world, and corruption is facilitated by dysfunctional institutions. The government has made some efforts to tackle the issue, such as the prosecution and conviction of federal officials and the improvement of financial management systems, aided by international partners. However, state agencies are ineffective, and there are no laws guaranteeing public access to government information or requiring officials to declare their income or assets. The self-declared Republic of Somaliland also faces corruption and nepotism on a clan basis, although it generally functions more effectively than the rest of the country. Somalia has ratified three of the 10 international treaties on organized crime. As a result, the government was able to retake control of major towns, although Al-Shabaab continues to establish itself in rural areas in the south. Moreover, authorities and the federal government continue their cooperation with the UN Refugee Agency and other humanitarian organizations to assist refugees, returning refugees, and asylum seekers, among others. Many pieces of legislation, such as the recently passed Human Trafficking Act, were introduced only after external pressure. The human rights situation is of great concern, as mechanisms to protect and promote basic rights are weak. The formal court system in Somalia is highly corrupt and dysfunctional, even in the capital city. The informal court system interferes in the work of the formal system, handling the majority of cases. There are also local courts, which combine the traditional and Islamic law that constitutes the basic judicial framework of the country. However, access to justice is low, and the formal justice system faces challenges and criticism from Sharia leaders as well as others delivering customary law at the local level, including Al-Shabaab. Military courts are still used throughout Somalia to try civilians, primarily those suspected of being members of terrorist groups. Prisons are overcrowded, as many inmates are held on remand for numerous years before trial. Detention centres are characterized by poor sanitation and hygiene, inadequate food and water, and a lack of medical care. The spread of violent extremism in prisons is a concern, and ethnic power struggles play out as much in the prison setting as they do outside. The law enforcement system in Somalia is weak, corrupt, and infiltrated by extremist groups, particularly Al-Shabaab. The Somali government maintains bilateral support for its policing and security services, but law enforcement capabilities do not exist effectively outside of international partnerships. Furthermore, authorities lack the adequate means to deal with cybercrime, and perpetrators are often not identified or prosecuted. The Ministry of Post and Telecommunications oversees such issues, but there is no specific division responsible for investigating cybercrime. Many organizations, private and public, lack expert information technology personnel. Al-Shabaab conducts cross-border attacks into Kenya, exacerbating the already tense relationship between the two countries. The government has limited ability to exercise its power independently, with no notable improvement in border control or the frequency of migration flows. Al-Shabaab continues to occupy and control many large rural areas in south-central Somalia. A robust informal money system, known as hawala, serves the vast Somali diaspora, enabling transactions to flow across borders without surveillance. Money transfer operators do not have robust anti-money laundering infrastructure, meaning that most transactions occur outside of what the formal financial system has the capacity to regulate. Al-Shabaab routinely uses domestic financial institutions, including commercial banks and mobile money services, to collect, store, and distribute revenue, and utilizes mobile money to make salary payments to its soldiers and officials. Money laundering through trade mispricing facilitates the movement of money into and out of the country. Despite some effort by the government, Somalia has not made sufficient progress to justify removing it from the list of countries that pose a risk to the international financial system. The government relies on the international community to play an active role in clarifying counterterrorism and anti-money laundering regulations to financial institutions. Online gambling and the abuse of crowdfunding are still not regulated, even though both methods are increasingly a source of funding for terrorist groups such as Al-Shabaab and the Islamic State. Both the commercial and public sectors, notably in areas such as public procurement, international aid, and concessions, are structured around patronage networks and tight monopolies, which dominate the market. The absence of a regulatory framework and business infrastructure, along with a largely privatized banking system, hampers the state-regulated economic environment. As a result, Somalia is considered among the worst performing countries in the world by most relevant economic and businesses indicators. However, Somalis are incredibly entrepreneurial and have adapted to decades of uncertain governance through micro-entrepreneurship and the formation of local business councils and chambers of commerce. Taxation has improved in Mogadishu, and fees at the port and airport, the taxation of international trade, and an additional sales tax have increased revenue. However, the federal government has no power outside Mogadishu in terms of taxation. Meanwhile, Al-Shabaab continues to derive funding from sources such as checkpoint taxation and business extortion. The central state has essentially no capacity to provide basic services, and is reliant on the provision of food, shelter, and medical supplies from the international community. The distribution of aid is politicized, with Al-Shabaab taxing such funds to reinforce its local power. There is therefore no credible way for the government to claim or attempt to provide specialized or protective services to victims of any form of crime. Authorities have introduced several national and international policies to combat transnational organized crime and have made commitments to human rights protections. However, the implementation of these policies remains poor, and penalties for possessing or trafficking drugs are severe. Measures in place to prevent human trafficking vary in different regions, depending on available resources. Child soldiers remain a prominent issue, with various forces unlawfully recruiting and using them. While training and awareness campaigns to prevent the recruitment and use of child soldiers continue, the government has not reported the implementation of any mechanisms to curb their recruitment and use in its own army. Somalia is one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists, with political violence and corruption undermining the freedom of the press. Even though officially allowed by the Somali Provincial Federal Constitution, public protests and assemblies are often restricted or even forbidden. Journalists who refuse to comply become targets for Al-Shabaab militants, or face arbitrary detention, torture, targeted killings, or the closure of their media houses by authorities. Despite these challenges, civil society organizations and NGOs have a strong presence in Somalia, providing local services and peacebuilding, but with a limited impact. In Somaliland, many NGOs and political parties can operate without interference. Nevertheless, there has been an increase in restrictions and the arbitrary arrest of government critics, including journalists and opposition leaders. The criminal markets score is represented by the pyramid base size and the criminal actors score is represented by the pyramid height, on a scale ranging from 1 to The resilience score is represented by the panel height, which can be identified by the side of the panel. Capital Mogadishu. Population 17,, Geography type Coastal. Income group Low income. Criminal markets 5. Human trafficking 8. Human smuggling 7. Extortion and protection racketeering 9. Arms trafficking 9. Trade in counterfeit goods 6. Illicit trade in excisable goods 5. Flora crimes 7. Fauna crimes 5. Non-renewable resource crimes 3. Heroin trade 2. Cocaine trade 2. Cannabis trade 2. Synthetic drug trade 2. Cyber-dependent crimes 2. Financial crimes 7. Criminal actors 7. Mafia-style groups 9. Criminal networks 7. State-embedded actors 7. Foreign actors 5. Private sector actors 5. Government transparency and accountability 1. International cooperation 2. National policies and laws 2. Judicial system and detention 2. Law enforcement 1. Territorial integrity 1. Anti-money laundering 2. Economic regulatory capacity 1. Victim and witness support 1. Prevention 1. Non-state actors 3. Analysis Download full profile english. People Human trafficking continues to be a significant area of concern in Somalia. Trade There is a substantial number of illegal weapons in Somalia, ranging from pistols to machine guns, and these are commonly trafficked by clan militias, Al-Shabaab, governmental groups, and transnational trafficking networks based in the north, particularly Puntland and eastern Somaliland. Environment The illegal trade of flora in Somalia remains a prevalent problem, with illegal charcoal trade being the most prominent form of flora crimes. Drugs There is no notable domestic heroin market in Somalia, despite its location on the southern route for smuggling opiates from Afghanistan. Cyber Crimes Al-Shabaab limits the use of information and communications technology and prohibits internet usage in the regions under its control, where rules and regulations are difficult to enforce. Financial Crimes Somalia does not have a strong financial regulation structure, and financial crime is widespread. Criminal Actors In Somalia, Al-Shabaab operates as part of a larger transnational criminal enterprise, engaging in illicit trafficking, extortion, and racketeering. Leadership and governance Somalia is a fragmented country and continues to be characterized by internal tension, violent extremism, extensive displacements, and weak governance. Criminal justice and security The formal court system in Somalia is highly corrupt and dysfunctional, even in the capital city. Civil society and social protection The central state has essentially no capacity to provide basic services, and is reliant on the provision of food, shelter, and medical supplies from the international community. Next Skip.
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