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Preserved brain samples dating back to early 17th-century Milan have tested positive for cocaine , a team of Italian researchers has found, but it's not immediately clear how it got into their systems. The new study from the University of Milan sheds light on the historical spread of the highly addictive drug, previously understood to have emerged in Europe as recently as the s, and famously both used and promoted by prominent figures including psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. But as the August study's findings show, Freud may have been rather behind the times, by as much as nearly years. Researchers ran a battery of toxicological tests on specimens recovered from the Ospedale Maggiore , a Milanese hospital and church that operated throughout the s and maintained extensive burial chambers, known as the Ca'Granda crypt. Among the human remains interred in the complex's crypt, scientists examined nine brain samples, and in two of those nine samples, test results showed the presence of cocaine and some of its chemically related substances — a bewildering discovery, as none of the hospital's original records from the time mention the drug or its use. Cocaine draws it origin from the leaf of the Erythroxylum coca plant, a bush native to South America. For millennia, humans have used the plant for a variety of medicinal and religious purposes, including by chewing the leaves in a mixture with lime and roasted shells. Societies including the Inca Empire, and later Spanish colonialists, controlled the flow of coca crops for their effect on the body, described in the University of Milan study as holding 'the power to take away hunger and thirst, produced exhilarating effects, could be used as medicine … and induced a sense of well-being. But while the plant was recognized for its potent and lucrative qualities, researchers note that early coca exports across the Atlantic were extremely limited. At the time, Spain maintained a tight lid on information from the so-called 'New World,' making it near impossible for demand to spread in Europe. Moreover, shipments of fresh coca largely failed to survive the transatlantic journey, the study notes. In this Jan. It wouldn't be until the 19th century that modern forms of cocaine — hydrochloride salts chemically synthesized from coca plants — would emerge in medicine, and later recreational abuse. In the modern drug epidemic, cocaine, amphetamines or other stimulants were involved in roughly half of all accidental deaths from opioid toxicity in Canada between and , federal data shows, and a United Nations report from last year estimates that roughly half a million prior-year cocaine users reside in Canada. But with two Italian brain samples showing signs of cocaine exposure a century or more before the drug's widespread adoption in Europe, the story may prove more complicated than it once appeared. Besides what the study authors describe as disputed reports of cocaine in ancient Egyptian mummies, the Milanese cadavers represent the oldest known users of coca products outside of the Americas, where the plants have long been endemic. The researchers took pains to ensure there weren't interfering factors. The brain samples were handled in protected conditions or in their original crypt, which had been sealed since before modern times — safeguarding against environmental contamination. Further, detailed analysis of the samples showed trace amounts of hygrine, a substance associated with coca leaf use, but not modern cocaine salts — consistent with the researchers' timeline. Near as they can tell from the data, it would appear that the two Ospedale Maggiore patients had consumed the drug through chewing leaves or drinking a coca-leaf tea, likely in a single instance, and shortly before their deaths. As for why they'd consumed it, there are only educated guesses. The hospital's pharmacy archives don't note the introduction of cocaine until the late s, casting doubt on the idea that it was provided as a form of medicine. That said, the duchy of Milan was under Spanish rule during much of that period, and as a key coastal trade outlet, the city would have seen shipments from across the Atlantic, potentially including what historical accounts of the time describe as 'exotic' plants. According to the researchers' findings, available clues point to either recreational use, or as a productivity enhancer, just as the Spanish colonists used it in New-World mines and plantations, and as in much of modern cocaine abuse. 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Follow the CTV News channel on WhatsApp That said, the duchy of Milan was under Spanish rule during much of that period, and as a key coastal trade outlet, the city would have seen shipments from across the Atlantic, potentially including what historical accounts of the time describe as 'exotic' plants. Correction This article has been updated to clarify the number of overdose deaths attributed to stimulants. Precedent-setting terrorism lawsuit hearing begin in federal court After waiting 15 years, Canadian Abousfian Abdelrazik will finally get the chance to hold the federal government accountable for its alleged complicity which led to his imprisonment and torture in Sudan. Cubans struggle with an extended power outage and a new tropical storm Cuba's widespread blackouts stretched into their fourth day as Hurricane Oscar crossed the island's eastern coast with winds and heavy rain. 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Montreal man detained in Sudan gets day in court with lawsuit against Ottawa Fifteen years after filing a lawsuit against the Canadian government over his detention in Sudan, Abousfian Abdelrazik is getting his day in court. LIVE A. MT Jasper residents to learn provincial government housing plans today The Alberta government is set to reveal on Monday its plans for interim housing in Jasper, which saw about housing units destroyed in a wildfire in July. South Korea calls for immediate withdrawal of North Korean troops allegedly in Russia South Korea on Monday demanded the immediate pullout of North Korean troops allegedly deployed in Russia as it summoned the Russian ambassador to protest deepening military cooperation between Pyongyang and Moscow. Is that legal? 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Mechanisms of acute cocaine toxicity

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August 23, report. This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies. Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:. A team of biomedical and medicinal specialists from the University of Milan, working with a colleague from Foundation IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, has found evidence of cocaine use by at least two people as far back as the 17th century in Europe. In their study , published in the Journal of Archaeological Science , the group analyzed the preserved brains of two people found in a crypt in Milan used as a burial site for people who died in the nearby Ospedale Maggiore—a well-known hospital of the time. Prior research has found that for thousands of years, people living in western parts of South America chewed on the leaves of the coca plant to experience its chemical effects. After it was found that the leaves could be processed to make cocaine hydrochloride salts in the 19th century, the mind-altering effects of the drug became more widely known and it became a popular recreational drug in many parts of Europe. In this new study, the research team found evidence that people were chewing the leaves of the plant to get high in at least one part of Europe nearly years earlier. The team studied the remains of people entombed in the Ca' Granda crypt, which was used as a burial site for approximately the entirety of the 17th century. As part of their work, they discovered the remains of two people who had been mummified. Study of the remains showed that both had active components of the coca plant in their brains, which meant they had been chewing its leaves. The research team also studied the pharmacological records of the Ospedale Maggiore and found no records of cocaine or coca plants being used for medicinal purposes. This suggested that the two people had been chewing the leaves for other reasons. The team noted that the two mummified individuals were buried in a place and in such a way as to suggest that they were poor, further suggesting that the coca leaves were cheap and likely plentiful and that they were chewed recreationally. More information: Gaia Giordano et al, Forensic toxicology backdates the use of coca plant Erythroxylum spp. DOI: More from Earth Sciences. Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form. For general feedback, use the public comments section below please adhere to guidelines. Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages. Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties. More information Privacy policy. We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account. Home Other Sciences Archaeology. Editors' notes. Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility: fact-checked peer-reviewed publication trusted source proofread. Signs of caries sicca on cranium C2, both photograph and X-rays image. Credit: Journal of Archaeological Science This document is subject to copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or research, no part may be reproduced without the written permission. The content is provided for information purposes only. Explore further. 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