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Eclectic but curated. Smart without snark. Ideas journalism with a head and heart. You may opt out or contact us anytime. Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Amphetamines, the quintessential drug of the modern industrial age, arrived relatively late in the history of mind-altering substances—commercialized just in time for mass consumption during World War II. With the possible exception of opium during the Opium Wars, no drug has ever received a bigger stimulus from armed conflict. Whether in the air or in the trenches, the war enabled the rapid proliferation of a synthetic stimulant that was particularly well-suited to sleepless work and intense concentration. While produced entirely in the laboratory, amphetamines owe their existence to the search for an artificial substitute for the ma huang plant, better known in the West as ephedra. This relatively scarce desert shrub has been used as an herbal remedy in China for more than 5, years and is often ingested to treat common ailments such as coughs and colds and to promote concentration and alertness—including historically by night guards patrolling the Great Wall of China. Ogata, developed a synthetic substitute for ephedrine. But it was not until amphetamine was synthesized in at a UCLA laboratory by the young British chemist Gordon Alles that a formula was available for commercial medical use. The Benzedrine inhaler hit the market in as an over-the-counter remedy for asthma and congestion. And thus, the stage was set for large-scale pill pushing to reach the battlefield when the next war broke out. The Japanese imperial government sought to give its fighting capacity a pharmacological edge, and so it contracted out methamphetamine production to domestic pharmaceutical companies for use during the war effort. The tablets were distributed to pilots for long flights and to soldiers for combat, under the trade name Philopon also known as Hiropin. In addition, the government gave munitions workers and those laboring in other defense-related factories methamphetamine tablets to increase their productivity. In the all-out push to increase production, strong prewar inhibitions against drug use were swept aside. It is not difficult to understand why. As researchers such as political scientist Lukasz Kamienski have documented, total war required total mobilization, from factory to battlefield. Pilots, soldiers, naval crews, and laborers were all routinely pushed beyond their natural limits to stay awake longer and work harder. In this context, taking stimulants was seen as a patriotic duty. Kamikaze pilots took large doses of methamphetamine, via injection, before their suicide missions. They were also given pep pills stamped with the crest of the emperor. Before the injection of Philopon, the pilots undertook a warrior ceremony in which they were presented with sake, wreaths of flowers, and decorated headbands. Although soldiers from many countries returned home from the war with amphetamine habits, the problem was most severe in Japan, which experienced the first drug epidemic in the history of the country. These stockpiles of the drug then brought about other dramatic changes in Japanese society. Upon surrendering in , the country had massive stores of Hiropin in warehouses, military hospitals, supply depots, and caves peppered throughout its territories. Some of the supply was sent to public dispensaries for distribution as medicine, but the rest was diverted to the black market rather than destroyed. Pervitin, a methamphetamine brand that German soldiers used during WWII, dispensed the tablets in these containers. Any tablets not diverted to illicit markets remained in the hands of pharmaceutical companies. In the wake of the traumas and dislocations of the war, a depressed and humiliated population offered an easy target. With an estimated 5 percent of Japanese people between the ages of 18 and 25 taking the drug, many became intravenous addicts in the early s. Another driver of the epidemic was the existence of large, new U. National newspaper Asahi Shinbun wrote that U. However, according to historian Miriam Kingsberg, most drug scandals involving U. Surging methamphetamine use led to increasingly strict state regulation of the drug: The Stimulant Control Law banned methamphetamine possession, and penalties were increased three years later. But these increases did not stop the rise in arrests for amphetamine abuse, which jumped from 17, people in to 55, in During the early s, arrests in Japan for stimulant offences made up more than 90 percent of total drug arrests. In an anonymous survey by the Ministry of Welfare in , 7. Meanwhile the Asahi Shinbun published an estimate that 1. The high rates of amphetamine use in Japan started to subside by the late s and early s, once economic growth began to create more jobs. Nevertheless, methamphetamine would remain the most popular illicit drug in Japan for decades to come. Please tell us your thoughts. We may edit your letter for length and clarity and publish it on our site. By continuing to use our website, you agree to our privacy and cookie policy. No paywall. No ads. No partisan hacks. Ideas journalism with a head and a heart. Post navigation Prev Next. Send Us a Letter.

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