Buy Cocaine Ha Long

__________________________

📍 Verified store!

📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!

__________________________

▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼

▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲

Buy Cocaine Ha Long

These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Most indicators continue to suggest that cocaine availability on European consumer markets remains at historically high levels and that the markets continue to expand across Europe. While most cocaine consumers remain concentrated in a limited number of western and southern European countries, whose markets appear to be continuing to expand, there are also indications that cocaine retail markets continue to grow in northern and eastern Europe. However, there are also indications that these markets are growing and are emerging in countries where they were not observed before. Affordability of drugs is a measure that incorporates drug purity and accounts for differing national economic conditions as quantified in the price level indices PLI for fuller details and limitations, see Groshkova et al. Affordability allows a more sophisticated comparison of retail drug markets across countries and over time. Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. This finding is in line with trends noted in other indicators of retail markets such as retail prices and purity, estimated prevalence of drug use, wastewater analysis and numbers of cocaine seizures, which all suggest a further increase in cocaine availability since the last edition of this report EMCDDA and Europol, It should also be noted that cocaine affordability in Europe does not appear to have been impacted by the COVID pandemic and associated measures restricting movement in Europe, as it remained stable or slightly increased in see Figure Changes in average affordability of cocaine in a group of 16 EU Member States. The purity of cocaine at the retail level has been increasing in Europe since , and in it reached its highest level in the last decade, although adulteration continues to take place see Box Recent trends in cocaine adulteration. Overall, the retail price of the drug remained stable between and This appears to confirm the trend, identified in the previous edition of this report, that more cocaine is now available on European retail markets than before EMCDDA and Europol, The COVID pandemic does not seem to have impacted retail prices or the increase in purity recorded since in significant ways, even if a slight increase in price and a stabilisation of purity can be observed in see Figure Indexed trends in cocaine retail price and purity. This is likely due to an increase in the availability of high-purity cocaine at the wholesale level see Box Profiling European cocaine and to competition between the numerous criminal networks involved at the various levels of the cocaine market see Cocaine: increasingly attractive for a wider range of criminal networks. The increasing production of cocaine hydrochloride in Europe may also have played a role see Section Manufacturing cocaine: new developments highlight larger European role in global production. In Europe, the retail market for cocaine has historically been concentrated in the western and southern parts of the continent. This is where most of the drug first enters the EU, and they are the most populated and wealthiest regions of Europe. Data on prevalence of cocaine use, expressed in estimated numbers of users during the last year, may be viewed as an indicator of the location and approximate size of retail markets, with the latest available data signalling that the largest retail markets continue to be located in western and southern Europe. Two Nordic countries, Denmark and Sweden, follow these countries, but report much lower estimated numbers of users. Meanwhile, the available data indicate that Poland may be the largest cocaine market in eastern Europe. However, due to a lack of recent general population survey data from some countries in this part of Europe, this may not be the case. While western and southern Europe remain the main markets, signs such as cocaine consumption becoming more common in cities in eastern Europe suggest that the cocaine retail market is also developing in other regions EMCDDA, Recent trends based on data from 15 countries that have conducted surveys on last year cocaine use since indicate that levels of use are increasing in 8 countries, remaining stable in 5 and decreasing in 2 EMCDDA, a. While an overall decrease in cocaine use was visible in , likely due to COVID and the restrictions imposed on social gatherings and the nightlife scene, there are indications of recovery in and overall signals that the cocaine retail market continues to expand. Wastewater information provides some details on the characteristics of European cocaine retail markets see Overview of data and methods. Likely due to a temporary reduction in cocaine use during the initial lockdown period of the COVID pandemic, data on cocaine residues namely the benzoylecgonine cocaine metabolite in municipal wastewater showed a decrease in the majority of cities in compared to EMCDDA, However, in an increase in cocaine residues was observed in 32 out of 58 cities compared to , with 12 reporting no change and 14 reporting a decrease EMCDDA, a. Furthermore, wastewater data from 12 European cities covering the period show increasing longer-term trends. While this cannot be readily interpreted as an increase in the number of cocaine users, although this is a possible explanation, other factors could have caused this increase in metabolites. Higher concentrations of metabolites could mean that the same number of people used more cocaine, or they could reflect the increased purity of cocaine found on European retail markets. A combination of these three causes could also be an explanation. Treatment data can also provide some insight into the drug retail trade. Between , first-time entries to specialised drug treatment for cocaine problems increased in 14 countries EDR Overall, new entries to treatment for problems associated with cocaine use have increased in Europe since Most of the drug seizures reported in Europe are of small amounts of under 10 grams, likely confiscated on retail markets. Out of the 26 countries with sufficient data, only Bulgaria and Greece, which report comparatively small numbers of cocaine seizures, did not report a decrease between and Indeed, as already mentioned, lockdowns across Europe impacted on levels of cocaine use, and it is also probable that less police time and resources were focused on enforcing drug laws at retail level in , since many officers were mobilised in the enforcement of COVID restrictions. However, the impact of COVID on European retail markets for cocaine in should not obscure the steady increase in the number of cocaine seizures observed between and , a general trend which, put in the context of the other indicators reviewed in this report, may have only been temporarily interrupted by the effects of COVID In this respect, it will be important to continue monitoring numbers of cocaine seizures in Europe in the future. The country reporting the largest estimated number of cocaine seizures in and in previous years is Spain 35 followed by Italy 7 , Belgium 5 , and Sweden 4 However, it must be noted that data are not available for several countries usually reporting large numbers of seizures. The countries reporting the highest numbers of seizures also report some of the highest estimated numbers of cocaine users. It should be noted that the Netherlands, one of the top retail markets in terms of numbers of cocaine users, does not report numbers of drug seizures and as a result is not included in this analysis. Trends in numbers of seizures and other indicators presented in the edition of the EU Drug Markets Report EMCDDA and Europol, suggested that the largest cocaine retail markets of western and southern Europe continued growing, while other markets were emerging or expanding in eastern Europe and in the Nordic countries. New seizure data broadly confirm that these trends continued until the shock caused by COVID in East European countries generally report much lower numbers than the rest of Europe, reaching a few hundred cocaine seizures annually at the most. Seven countries Estonia, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia reported record numbers of cocaine seizures in However, data from the police are not available, so this may not reflect the true level. Furthermore, Turkey reported 3 cocaine seizures in , seven times the number reported in and the seventh largest number of cocaine seizures in Europe that year. Although the number of Turkish seizures started declining after the peak of 3 , it remains at significantly higher levels than in the mids, continuing to suggest that a sizeable cocaine retail market exists in Turkey see Figure Indexed trends in numbers of cocaine seizures in 11 Eastern EU countries and Turkey. Similarly, Danish, Finnish and Norwegian seizures were more numerous in and than in Denmark and Finland, like Sweden, broke records in , before the pandemic hit Europe. Historically, small freebase cocaine markets have existed in a few western and southern European countries including Germany, Spain, France, Italy and the Netherlands. The available information indicates that use of freebase cocaine in eastern and northern Europe continues to be very limited. Although there is little doubt that the European market for smokeable freebase products is much smaller than the market for hydrochloride powders, it is difficult to monitor and the data available at present are unlikely to reflect its true dimension. Should the other main freebase cocaine markets in Europe have experienced a similar increase in the number of users over this time period, of which there are some indications, then there would potentially be over freebase cocaine users in Europe. An important distinction between the two cocaine markets is that while cocaine powders are invariably bought from dealers, the freebase market involves products that are either manufactured by the users themselves from purchased powders or purchased as crack from dealers. Based on the available evidence, it is difficult to estimate which of these two types of products is the most prominent, but basification for own use i. Those who manufacture their own freebase products may not identify themselves as crack users but as cocaine users, which may lead to an underestimation of the number of freebase cocaine users in Europe EMCDDA and Europol, Thus, for a number of reasons, it is likely that the European market for freebase cocaine products is both underestimated and under-documented. Caution is therefore required when interpreting the available data. Freebase cocaine is primarily smoked, but some users inject it. In some countries such as France and Portugal, low-threshold facilities report that injection of freebase is not infrequent. Freebase users appear to predominantly belong to vulnerable high-risk populations, and are often also current or former users of opioids. Migrants from Africa and east European countries are reported to make up a sizeable proportion of freebase cocaine users in some EU Member States. There are also indications of cocaine freebase use among some recreational drug users in France and Italy, which suggest that use is spreading to a new customer base. Only a handful of countries report the number of crack cocaine seizures consistently, and as a result it is difficult to distinguish trends. Nevertheless, it would appear that since the last edition of this report EMCDDA and Europol, , seizures have continued to be relatively stable and low in both numbers and quantities among the reporting countries. However, other datasets suggest that in recent years, some long-standing freebase markets may have grown, although they remain small, while new markets seem to have emerged in countries where they previously were not observed, resulting in an increase in Europe as a whole. For example, the overall number of people seeking treatment for problems with crack use tripled between and , when 7 people entered treatment. Notable increases were observed in countries with long-standing markets, such as Spain, France and Italy, but also in others including Belgium, Ireland and Portugal. Crack use was also reported in some German cities where it was rarely observed in the past. Similar trends emerge from other datasets. For instance, low-threshold services in Brussels, Lisbon and some areas of Ireland and Italy reported a significant increase in the number of crack users among their clients in In addition, wastewater analysis performed in 13 cities of six western European countries in found freebase residues in all cities and during all sampling days, indicating daily use EMCDDA, b. The highest loads were encountered in Amsterdam and Antwerp, that is, in cities located in countries identified as major entry points for wholesale cocaine shipments to the EU see Section Exploitation of global logistics: European and Latin American ports. Cocaine freebase markets often entail serious consequences in terms of public health and security, and can be particularly challenging to deal with for the public services concerned. Dependence on crack cocaine is characterised by high-frequency use, serious mental and physical health problems, and aggression. Notable harms associated with cocaine freebase use in Europe include intimidation, violence and forced prostitution, and it frequently leads individuals to financial ruin. At the global level, and particularly in South America, a bigger range of smokeable cocaine products are available to consumers than in Europe. The majority are made from the intermediary products, coca paste and cocaine base, that are formed during the manufacture of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves see Figure The cocaine production process and the different cocaine products. These are smuggled in wholesale amounts within and across borders from production areas in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. In some South American countries, especially the three main cocaine-producing countries, there is evidence to suggest that markets for smokeable products are larger than those for powder cocaine UNODC, e. As already mentioned, the availability in Europe of large quantities of coca paste and cocaine base creates a risk that new smokeable cocaine consumer products similar to those available in South America could emerge on the European market in the future see Section Manufacturing cocaine: new developments highlight larger European role in global production. Compared to other aspects of the cocaine market, there is limited systematic information available on the methods used to retail cocaine directly to consumers in Europe. Overall, the nature of the connections between the players active at different levels of the market — importation, wholesale distribution, mid-market distribution and retail sales — is generally poorly documented. Until more and better data are systematically collected on these aspects, it will be difficult to paint a comprehensive picture of how the cocaine retail market operates in Europe. That said, like the diversification of the criminal networks involved in the importation and distribution of cocaine in Europe analysed earlier see Cocaine: increasingly attractive for a wider range of criminal networks , some evidence exists to show that retail markets have seen the emergence of new players and are becoming more diverse, in terms of where and how they operate. While research on the cocaine retail trade is limited, it is generally thought that face-to-face methods for buying and delivering cocaine to consumers is most common. However, data collected through novel methods and on internet-based platforms have provided some insights into the market and how it may be changing. The diversification of the cocaine retail market has potentially been influenced by, among other things, the direct delivery to consumers of small amounts of cocaine purchased through the darknet. There is relatively good data on darknet markets, which have provided insights into estimated sales volumes, for example. Based on such data, cocaine has been estimated to be one of the drugs that generates the highest revenues for dealers operating in anonymised darknet markets. While darknet markets have been a relatively important source of supply for European cocaine consumers, there are indications that they are losing ground as a method for retailing cocaine and other drugs Groshkova et al. Research and analysis also suggest that public social media platforms and encrypted communication tools are commonly and potentially increasingly used across Europe for mid-level and retail cocaine trafficking. In Sweden, for example, ongoing research has found that the retail drugs trade has moved increasingly to social media platforms Bloem and Svederborn, , with one study finding that cocaine is offered in smaller quantities on Facebook compared to one of the largest Swedish cryptomarkets, namely Flugsvamp 2. Web-based surveys can also be a quick and inexpensive tool for collecting information from relatively large numbers of people who use drugs. While their results cannot be generalised to the population as a whole, or indeed to all people who use drugs, they can paint a detailed and timely picture of drug consumption and purchasing patterns and are a useful complement to traditional data-collection methods. A smaller proportion of these respondents provided detailed information enabling further analysis of how cocaine is retailed in Europe. Interestingly, the use of these methods differed between countries. While this indicates that some methods of purchase are more common in some countries than others, indicating that the retail markets may differ somewhat across Europe, it should be stressed that sample sizes were very small in several countries. Source: European Web Survey on Drugs, Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. The Figure In the last 12 months, how was the cocaine powder usually delivered to you? Similarly, the use of delivery methods greatly differs between countries, again suggesting differences among European countries. Early analysis on the impact of the pandemic on EU drug markets indicated that the effects of COVID restrictions appeared to be more noticeable at the retail level than at the wholesale level. Although large quantities of cocaine were available in Europe, the logistics of transporting smaller batches, including retail quantities, were more difficult to orchestrate. New modi operandi observed in some EU Member States indicated that some dealers quickly adapted to new challenges. It is too early to tell whether the pandemic will have any lasting effects on the retail trade for cocaine in Europe. It will be important to continue monitoring these aspects in the coming years. Although caution is needed in interpreting these data, the number of listings provides a useful indicator of the scale of activity on darknet markets. Compared with data from previous monitoring periods, when the origin of cocaine offered on darknet markets was limited to a few EU Member States EMCDDA and Europol, , the current data show considerable diversification, with cocaine now apparently being shipped from every corner of the EU. The typical quantity most frequently observed value of cocaine powder offered was 10 grams 1 listings , followed by 20 grams 1 The typical price per gram was consistently EUR 60 per gram, up to 50 grams, at which point a bulk discount was evident — listings of 50 grams and grams were typically offered at EUR 50 per gram. The typical quantity of crack offered was 1 gram 14 listings , followed by 0. There were listings of 1 kilogram or more cocaine powder. There were 47 listings for 2 kilograms; one listing each for 2. However, price data were not available for these quantities. The Netherlands and Germany together accounted for over half of the listings of bulk quantities see Figure Proportion of bulk cocaine listings on major darknet markets shipping from EU countries. Consult the list of references used in this resource. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. Breadcrumb Home Publications European Drug Markets Cocaine Cocaine retail markets: multiple indicators suggest continued growth and diversification. On this page. Cocaine retail markets: multiple indicators suggest continued growth and diversification. PDF is being prepared. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Last update: 6 May

The Neurobiology of Cocaine Addiction

Buy Cocaine Ha Long

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Nestler, M. An initial, short-term effect—a buildup of the neurochemical dopamine—gives rise to euphoria and a desire to take the drug again. Further pursuit of this and similar leads are first steps toward a complete understanding of the transition from cocaine abuse to addiction—and, ultimately, more effective treatments for those who are addicted. Some 20 years ago, scientists identified the specific brain mechanisms that underlie the cocaine high. Since then, neurobiologists have focused on the followup questions: What does chronic cocaine abuse do to the brain to cause addiction? In clinical terms, how does repeated cocaine exposure make individuals compulsively continue to take the drug even when they know it may cost them their jobs, possessions, loved ones, freedom, and even their lives? Why do people with every reason and intention to quit for good find it so hard to get away from the drug, and why do they remain vulnerable to relapse after years of abstinence? We do not yet have complete answers to these questions, but we have learned a great deal. We now know that cocaine affects brain cells in a variety of ways. Some of its effects revert quickly to normal. Others persist for weeks after the drug leaves the brain. With repeated exposure to cocaine, these short- and intermediate-term effects cumulatively give rise to further effects that last for months or years and may be irreversible. This article presents in broad outline the emerging picture of the neurobiology of cocaine addiction. Finally, the article discusses how investigations into the neurobiology of cocaine abuse are providing clues to cocaine vulnerability and the clinical implications of that research. Snorted, smoked, or injected, cocaine rapidly enters the bloodstream and penetrates the brain. The drug achieves its main immediate psychological effect—the high—by causing a buildup of the neurochemical dopamine. Dopamine acts as a pacesetter for many nerve cells throughout the brain. At every moment of our lives, dopamine is responsible for keeping those cells operating at the appropriate levels of activity to accomplish our needs and aims. Whenever we need to mobilize our muscles or mind to work harder or faster, dopamine drives some of the involved brain cells to step up to the challenge. Dopamine originates in a set of brain cells, called dopaminergic dopamine-making cells, that manufacture dopamine molecules and launch them into their surroundings. Some of the free-floating dopamine molecules latch onto receptor proteins on neighboring receiving cells. The more dopamine molecules come into contact with receptors, the more the electrical properties of the receiving cells are altered. To keep the receiving cells in each brain region functioning at appropriate intensities for current demands—neither too high nor too low—the dopaminergic cells continually increase and decrease the number of dopamine molecules they launch. They further regulate the amount of dopamine available to stimulate the receptors by pulling some previously released dopamine molecules back into themselves. Cocaine interferes with this latter control mechanism: It ties up the dopamine transporter, a protein that the dopaminergic cells use to retrieve dopamine molecules from their surroundings. As a result, with cocaine on board, dopamine molecules that otherwise would be picked up remain in action. Dopamine builds up and overactivates the receiving cells. Although cocaine also inhibits the transporters for other neurotransmitter chemicals norepinephrine and serotonin , its actions on the dopamine system are generally thought to be most important. Early rudiments are found in worms and flies, which take us back 2 billion years in evolution. Thus, cocaine alters a neural circuit in the brain that is of fundamental importance to survival. Such alterations affect the individual in profound ways that scientists are still trying to understand. Cocaine produces dopamine buildup wherever the brain has dopamine transporters. However, its ability to produce pleasure and euphoria, loss of control, and compulsive responses to drug-related cues can all be traced to its impact on the set of interconnected regions in the front part of the brain that make up the limbic system Hyman and Malenka, ; Kalivas and McFarland, ; Koob, Sanna, and Bloom, ; Nestler, Dopamine-responsive cells are highly concentrated in this system, which controls emotional responses and links them with memories. One particular part of the limbic system, the nucleus accumbens NAc , seems to be the most important site of the cocaine high. When stimulated by dopamine, cells in the NAc produce feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. The natural function of this response is to help keep us focused on activities that promote the basic biological goals of survival and reproduction. When a thirsty person drinks or someone has an orgasm, for example, dopaminergic cells flood the NAc with dopamine molecules. By artificially causing a buildup of dopamine in the NAc, as described above, cocaine yields enormously powerful feelings of pleasure. The amount of dopamine connecting to receptors in the NAc after a dose of cocaine can exceed the amounts associated with natural activities, producing pleasure greater than that which follows thirst-quenching or sex. In fact, some laboratory animals, if given a choice, will ignore food and keep taking cocaine until they starve. The limbic system also includes important memory centers, located in regions called the hippocampus and amygdala. These memory centers help us remember what we did that led to the pleasures associated with dopamine release in the NAc—for example, where we found water and how we attracted a mate. When someone experiences a cocaine high, these regions imprint memories of the intense pleasure as well as the people, places, and things associated with the drug. From then on, returning to a place where one has taken cocaine or merely seeing images of cocaine-related paraphernalia triggers emotionally loaded memories and desire to repeat the experience. Scientists believe that repeated cocaine exposure, with its associated dopamine jolts, alters these cells in ways that eventually convert conscious memory and desire into a near-compulsion to respond to cues by seeking and taking the drug. A third limbic region, the frontal cortex, is where the brain integrates information and weighs different courses of action. The frontal cortex acts as a brake on the other regions of the limbic system when we decide to forgo a pleasure in order to avoid its negative consequences. Activity here can help a nonaddicted person heed the disastrous prognosis of continued cocaine abuse and suppress drug-taking urges emanating from the NAc, hippocampus, and amygdala. Once someone becomes addicted, however, the frontal cortex becomes impaired and less likely to prevail over the urges Nestler and Malenka, ; Volkow, Fowler, and Wang, Cocaine causes many types of intermediate-term alterations in brain cell functioning. For example, exposure to the drug can alter the amounts of dopamine transporters or dopamine receptors present on the surface of nerve cells. The changes involving genes, however, are particularly intriguing. They occur in the limbic system, the primary site for cocaine effects, and are sufficiently fundamental and long-lasting to contribute significantly to the transition from drug abuse to addiction. Genes determine the shape and function of every cell. Every individual is born with a unique combination of roughly 30, genes. Every cell in the body contains all 30, One cell differs from another—a liver cell looks and acts differently from a brain cell, for example—because, in each, certain genes are turned on, while others are turned off. The popular notion that our genes never change is incorrect. It is true that the fundamental pattern of gene activation that gives each of our cells its essential properties is fixed once and for all during development. For example, once a cell develops into a liver cell, it remains a liver cell for life and cannot be converted into a brain cell. However, every cell retains the capacity to change the level of activity expression of a portion of its genes in response to the demands we place upon it. An example is weightlifting: Muscle cells respond to repeated exercise by increasing the expression of certain genes, leading to growth and strengthening of the individual cells and, collectively, of the entire muscle. So it is with brain cells: As we use them, they respond with changes in gene expression that, overall, increase their capacity to meet the demands we make upon them. For example, our brains register and store memories by altering gene expression in cells in the hippocampus and amygdala. Chemicals that act this way are called genetic transcription factors. Main panel Cocaine causes the neurotransmitter dopamine to build up at the interface between VTA cells and NAc cells, triggering pleasurable feelings and NAc cellular activities that sensitize the brain to future exposures to the drug. Molecular biology gave us the tools to accomplish this. The extreme persistence of those features of addiction indicates that cocaine must cause some equally long-lasting neuro-biological effects. Scientists have identified one potentially key type of cocaine-related change that appears to last for many months after the last cocaine exposure, and perhaps longer: an alteration in the physical structure of nerve cells in the NAc. Chronic cocaine exposure causes these cells to extend and sprout new offshoots on their dendrites Nestler, ; Robinson and Berridge, Dendrites are the branch-like fibers that grow out from nerve cell bodies and collect incoming signals from other nerve cells. Just as a bigger antenna picks up more radio waves, more dendrite branches in the NAc theoretically will collect a greater volume of nerve signals coming from other regions—for example, the hippocampus, amygdala, and frontal cortex. This will give those other regions an enhanced influence over the NAc, which could drive some of the very long-lived behavioral changes associated with addiction. For example, enhanced inputs from the hippocampus and amygdala could be responsible for the intense craving that occurs when drug-associated memories are stimulated e. When laboratory animals are treated with a compound that deactivates CDK5 in the NAc and then are given cocaine, the nerve cell growth normally associated with exposure to the drug does not occur. What makes certain individuals particularly vulnerable to addiction and others relatively resistant? This degree of heritability exceeds that of many other conditions that are considered highly heritable, such as type 2 non-insulin-dependent diabetes, hypertension, and breast cancer. The specific genes that confer risk for cocaine addiction remain unknown. One possibility is that at least some of them are the same genes that are affected by cocaine exposure. It is also possible that other genes—genes not affected by cocaine exposure—are responsible. Work is now under way to examine these alternatives. Finding addiction vulnerability genes will enable us to identify individuals who are at particular risk for an addictive disorder and target them for educational and other preventive measures. It will also help us understand how factors other than genetics contribute to the development of addiction. The identification of underlying biological mechanisms has been crucial for all major advances in treatment of other medical disorders, and there is no reason to think addiction will be any different. NAc nerve cells make five types of dopamine receptors; drugs that affect the functioning of one or more of them could, in theory, produce a palliative effect on cocaine addiction. Efforts are under way in each of these areas, including clinical trials, but so far no clear breakthrough has been reported. A medication aimed at preventing or reversing such changes might be an effective approach for treating cocaine addiction. There are literally hundreds of proteins that could be targeted in development of such a medication. The same is true for numerous additional molecular changes that have been implicated in cocaine addiction. Effective medications for treating cocaine addiction will eventually be developed, and the best strategy for progress in this area is to target neurobio-logical mechanisms, such as those described above. Although the process takes a very long time—it can take 10 to 20 years to advance from identification of a disease mechanism to development of a new treatment—this work is in progress and represents the best hope for those who are addicted. People often ask: Is it possible to treat a drug addiction with another drug? Even though psychological and social factors predominate in the presentation and diagnosis of addiction, the disease is at its core biological: changes that a physical substance drug causes in vulnerable body tissue brain. He or she must then work against powerful biological forces to recover from addiction; those who succeed often do so only after many attempts, and many do not succeed. Presumably, effective psychosocial treatments for addiction work by causing changes in the brain, perhaps even some of the same changes that will be produced by effective medications. While very little information is currently available on the neurobiological mechanisms underlying psychosocial treatments, this is a topic of great interest. The most important goal for the next decade is to translate the knowledge we have already gained, along with any future advances we make, into better treatments for addiction. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Sci Pract Perspect. Find articles by Eric J Nestler. PMC Copyright notice. See commentary ' Response: Images and Interventions ' on page Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Buy Cocaine Ha Long