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The analysis of drug traces on banknotes with different validated techniques can provide important information about the types of substances that are used in a geographical region. The literature search yielded 88 publications; 9 were included in our review. The concentration of cocaine ranged from 0. Benzoylecgonine was indentified only in three studies with a range from 0. Other indentified drugs were: amphetamine derivatives, opiates, benzodiazepines. Circulating banknotes could be used to indicate substances used in a population, and those recently introduced in a geographical macro-area. The identification of very high amounts of cocaine can provide important information for the identification of banknotes used in illegal trafficking. Drugs abuse and especially cocaine consumption in Western countries are an increasing social problem. The most used drugs can be also detected in the environment, so several studies had proposed the direct measure of drugs from environmental samples, for example from the analysis of the wastewaters, 2 , 3 or from alternative biological samples, such as keratin matrix. In literature there are different studies demonstrating that a significant proportion of banknotes in worldwide circulation are contaminated with cocaine and, to a lesser extent, with other controlled substances. Unfortunately, prevalence measures that can be gained from drug analysis on banknotes are not entirely reliable. First of all, it has been shown that the insertion of banknotes in automated teller machines ATM 9 , 10 provides a source of contamination between notes. In addition there are drugs that are sold in forms that allow greater retention in the banknote tissue, such as cocaine, and substances that can hardly be found, such as cannabis. The purpose of this study was to review the literature about the contamination of the banknotes in the world by cocaine, and by its principle metabolite benzoylecgonine—BEG. An additional aim was to describe the possible presence of other drugs on banknotes. We collected evidences dating from till Studies concerning the contamination of banknotes by cocaine were collected and analyzed. A manual search of reference lists of included studies and review articles was successively performed. All references of the retrieved studies were also reviewed to avoid missing relevant publications. After full screening of titles, abstracts and full texts, the selection of included studies was based on the availability of information regarding the contamination of banknotes by cocaine. A manual search of the reference lists of included studies and review articles was successively performed. All references of the retrieved studies were also reviewed to avoid overlooking relevant publications. Studies were selected in a 2-stage process. Titles and abstracts from electronic searches were scrutinized by two reviewers independently M. The level of agreement between the reviewers was high. We considered eligible articles in English, that we decided to include only if they reported clear and statistically evaluable data about the percentage of contamination by cocaine and the concentration of found cocaine. Additional data about contamination by other drugs were recorded. We excluded all studies that provided ambiguous or insufficient data on every item mentioned above. The literature search yielded 88 publications. The titles of these manuscripts were screened, resulting in 23 studies considered potentially eligible to be included in the review: in fact 33 resulted to be duplicate, 29 were not in line with the aim of the study, 3 were in other languages. Of the total of 23 relevant manuscripts identified, 6 studies were excluded after the examination of the abstracts and 17 studies were further evaluated by retrieving the full text. Finally, after the exclusion of eight studies we identified nine manuscripts figure 1. Flow diagram for identifying studies on the cocaine contamination of banknotes. As shown in table 1 , the percentage of positivity was not reported in all the studies included in the review: in the six studies that showed this datum, the percentage ranged from 2. As shown in table 1 , BEG was indentified only in three studies with a range 0. Other drugs indentified on banknotes were: amphetamine derivatives, opiates, benzodiazepines. In almost all the papers, the analyzed banknote samples came from countries, one from an island. All these techniques are able to highlight traces of cocaine on banknotes but with different sensitivity and specificity. We deduced that data deriving from analysis carried out with different methods cannot be perfectly superimposed. Analytical methods proposed for the determination of cocaine contamination on banknotes can be divided into two different groups: those that use separation techniques, such as GC, LC or capillary electrophoresis CE that allow the quantification of analytes with accuracy and precision, and, those that directly analyze banknotes using immunoassays, TD-MS2 or MS, ELISA. Chromatographic procedures represent the best validated methods for the quantification of cocaine on banknotes. Detection with MS2 provides a fingerprint that unequivocally identifies drugs in the analyzed solutions. For these reasons, it is necessary to perform banknote analysis on a large sample, with statistical studies that can detect money certainly associated with illegal trafficking. In addition to these techniques we remember that Termal direct desorption TD-MS2 is a rapid technique that combined with MS2 or IMS, and represents a selective method that allows rapid sample preparation but requires more energy to extract the analyte. Both methods are regarded as semi-quantitative approaches to problems related to particles trapped within the matrix of banknotes and those present in the extracted solution. Ion-mobility spectrometry IMS can be adopted as a screening method able to detect nanogram amounts of drugs, especially useful when great amount of money are seized. Moreover the GLORIA test gold-labeled, optically read, rapid immunoassay , has been applied to the detection of drugs on banknotes. It is capable to detect very low quantities nanograms of analyte and lasts a few minutes. The limits of this test are the lack of specificity and sensibility that can cause false positives and false negatives. As it can be easily inferred from the table, the analysis performed in order to detect cocaine on banknotes has results considerably different as regards both the percentage of positive samples both the concentration of the substance. In fact, the percentage of cocaine detection ranged from 2. Looking at the percentages of cocaine contamination detected on the Euro banknotes, the percentages vary from 2. These percentages are slightly indicative of direct contamination. It is well known that there is high contamination that occurs between the banknotes when these are placed in contact with each other. There are many theories that have been postulated for the retention of controlled substances by banknotes. It has been suggested that the ink on currency never really dries, and could provide a sticky surface onto which human oils, environmental dirt and grime including narcotics can be attached. In addition, counting machines may contribute to the wide dissemination of drugs on currency. Indeed, counting machines at the Bank of England have been shown to be contaminated with cocaine, 24 probably resulting from the myriad banknotes counted daily. Evidently it is not possible to say how traces of drugs originated or how long they have been present. In fact, deposits on banknotes could derive from direct contact with the drug itself, by a contaminated hand, or another contaminated item. With the rapid exchange of money it is possible for an individual who has no personal involvement with drugs to be in possession of banknotes bearing detectable amounts of controlled substances. The upper limit of the general background quantity for cocaine on currency in the United States is 13 ng per banknote, 5 whereas 13— ng amounts indicate closer contact with the original contamination. In , Carter et al. The presence of large amounts of cocaine can prove evidence of close contact with the drug. The proportion of banknotes contaminated with a particular compound and the extent of contamination need to be considered and separated from money from general circulation using statistical evidences. In addition several studies have detected the presence of benzoylecgonine on banknotes, with a concentration ranging from 0. Benzoylecgonine is a metabolite derived from the hydrolysis of cocaine. It can be therefore generated in conditions of humidity and presence of water. The same reasoning is conceivable for the detection of 6-Monoacetylmorphine 6-MAM and morphine which are heroin metabolites. These products can still result from a synthesis error and may be already present in the powder which is sold. Moreover some authors underlined the correlation between the value of the banknotes and the concentration of cocaine detected on them. Mackuak et al. Wimmer and Almeida 13 , 15 have detected that banknotes of smaller size contain a higher amount of drug, perhaps also in relation to their surface that appears rougher and is able to retain a greater quantity of substance. Looking at the other drugs, small amount of other substances were detected on analyzed banknotes. These data need to be critically commented. It is known that although amphetamine is also frequently administered in powder form, the crystal size is bigger than that of cocaine, and retention by banknotes appears less effective. Because of the method of preparation and usage, combined with the small doses used, it is unusual to encounter a detectable amount of these drugs. From our literature review on the presence of cocaine and its derivatives on banknotes, with references to the other types of substances, it is possible to say that this kind of investigation can provide important information for the identification of banknotes used in illegal trafficking. Compounds and solvents used in drug preparation, are part of a class of chemicals that are placed under tight controls, generally in each country. These chemical products may contain impurities which differ from country to country or from laboratory to laboratory. The identification of money definitely related to drug trafficking can lead to the possibility to carry on analyses for the detection of these impurities that can represent the fingerprints of laboratories involved in production and trafficking of drugs. The analysis of drugs on banknotes for epidemiological purposes and to perform consumption statistical analysis does not appear equally compelling. First of all, the contamination that occurs between banknotes coming in contact one with the other, and in this way between drug money and money normally present in circulation is really significant, in a so large extent that all the latest studies demonstrated that almost all of the banknotes present traces of drugs and in particular of cocaine. It is conceivable that not all the banknotes have been directly used in the exchange of drugs or for snorting. Therefore, with a rate of contamination which affects almost all of the analyzed samples it is not possible to deduce information about the real consumption of a substance in the general population. Moreover notes easily move from one subject to another, are counted in ATM and therefore cannot indicate the history of consumption of its owner at any given time. In addition, a banknote like Euro that circulates in an entire continent can be contaminated in the transition between different countries. It is evident that the presence of traces of drugs in the tissue may refer to a use made throughout the euro-zone, remembering the flow of tourists and the easy travels on the European continent. The same can be asserted for the other types of banknotes. We conclude that at the present state of knowledge it is possible to believe that banknotes circulating recently can only indicate what types of substances are used in a given population. Therefore, the analysis of drug residues on banknotes may represent an useful tool to evaluate and study the prevalence of new substances used in a given geographical macro-area. Key points. Our review showed that banknotes contamination with drugs is a very common phenomenon. The identification contaminated money could be useful to detect the areas at risk of drugs trafficking. Screening for cocaine on Euro banknotes by a highly sensitive enzyme immunoassay. Talanta ; : — Google Scholar. Estimating community drug abuse by wastewater analysis. Environ Health Persp ; : — Drugs and psychoactive substances in the Tiber River. Aust J Forensic Sci ; doi: The analysis of the keratin matrix as a new tool to evaluate the epidemiology of drug use in Perugia Italy : a cross sectional study. A 10 year post-mortem analysis of keratin matrix in Perugia Italy : focus on cocaine involvement in several types of death. Drugs on money. Anal Chem ; 72 : A — A. Validated, non-destructive and environmentally friendly determination of cocaine in euro bank notes. J Chromatogr A ; : — 5. Occurrence of contamination by controlled substances in Euro banknotes from the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. J Forensic Sci ; 56 : — The distribution of controlled drugs on banknotes via counting machines. Forensic Sci Int ; : — Factors influencing the contamination of UK banknotes with drugs of abuse. Analyst ; : — Quim Nova ; 30 : — 7. Wimmer K , Schneider S. Forensic Sci Int ; : — 7. An accurate and non destructive GC method for determination of cocaine on US paper currency. J Sep Sci ; Forensic Sci Int ; : 50 — 5. Mackuak S. Determination of illicit drugs and their metabolites contamination on banknotes. Monatsh Chem ; : 39 — Armenta S , de la Guardia M. Analytical methods to determine cocaine contamination of banknotes from around the world. Trends Anal. Chem ; 27 : — Determination of a trace amount of cocaine on a bank note by gas-chromatography positive-ion chemical-ionization mass-spectrometry. Chromatogr ; : — Ion mobility spectrometry. Anal Chem ; 62 : A — 9A. Google Preview. Visher CA. Comparison of urinalysis technologies for drug testing in criminal justice. In: Justice NIo, editor. Washington Paradis D. ElSohly MA. Urinalysis and casual handling of Marijuana and Cocaine. J Anal Toxicol ; 15 : Burton IAF. Bristol, UK. Sweat testing to monitor drug exposure. Ann Clin Lab Sci ; 43 : 22 — Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Sign In or Create an Account. Advertisement intended for healthcare professionals. Sign in through your institution. Advanced Search. Search Menu. Article Navigation. Close mobile search navigation Article Navigation. Volume Article Contents Abstract. Journal Article. Cocaine contamination of banknotes: a review. Gianmarco Troiano , Gianmarco Troiano. Oxford Academic. Isabella Mercurio. Marco Golfera. Nicola Nante. Paola Melai. Massimo Lancia. Mauro Bacci. Select Format Select format. Permissions Icon Permissions. Abstract Background. Figure 1. Open in new tab Download slide. Table 1 Open in new tab. Author, year. N samples. Cocaine concentration. BEG concentration. Other substances. Google Scholar Crossref. Search ADS. Google Scholar PubMed. All rights reserved. Download all slides. Comments 0. Add comment Close comment form modal. I agree to the terms and conditions. You must accept the terms and conditions. Add comment Cancel. Submit a comment. Comment title. You have entered an invalid code. Submit Cancel. Thank you for submitting a comment on this article. Your comment will be reviewed and published at the journal's discretion. Please check for further notifications by email. Views 7, More metrics information. Total Views 7, Email alerts Article activity alert. Advance article alerts. New issue alert. Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic. Citing articles via Web of Science 8. Latest Most Read Most Cited Do poor psychosocial resources mediate health inequalities in type 2 diabetes mellitus? Findings from the Maastricht study. Leisure-time activities and disability among Chinese community-dwelling oldest old: evidence from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Study. Developing a nationwide registry of UK veterans seeking help from sector charities—a machine learning approach to stratification. Constructing a One Health governance architecture: a systematic review and analysis of governance mechanisms for One Health. More from Oxford Academic. Economics of Health. Health, Education, and Welfare. Health, Illness, and Medicine. Medicine and Health. Public Health and Epidemiology. Social Sciences. Authoring Open access Purchasing Institutional account management Rights and permissions. Get help with access Accessibility Contact us Advertising Media enquiries. Esteve-Turrillas 7. Di Donato et al. Bones et al. Zuo et al. Wimmer and Schneider Luzardo et al. Almeida et al. Mackuak
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