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This article originally appeared on the Andean Information Network. Read the original here. Three key arguments about of how drug production and trafficking function easily dispel this widespread misinformation. First, the majority of Chapare coca farmers are not directly involved in drug trafficking. Second, profits from most low-level drug trafficking are limited. And finally, the Chapare coca unions are not complicit with illegal activity; rather, they have proven to be active partners in the fight against drug production and trafficking. They fill the vat with coca leaves, which are then soaked in chemicals including sulfuric acid, ammonia, caustic soda and gasoline. The mechanized approach speeds up the maceration process, reduces the amount of coca to process one kilo of paste, and requires less workers — most production sites now employ three people instead of five. A production site using the Colombian method and working at full capacity can process up to of three kilos of cocaine paste per day. The rescatistas buy up cocaine paste from several sites. Once they have amassed several kilos, they arrange for it to be transported out of the Chapare, generally by teenagers or members of the large itinerant population who are always on the lookout for work. Whether by foot, road, or river, the transporters have innovative strategies to hide the drug so that they can pass through or avoid the police checkpoints. Some carry the paste by foot to the city of Cochabamba, a five-day trek with the risk of robbery. Cocaine paste also makes its way north along rivers into the department of Beni. The cocaine paste still needs to be refined into pure crystallized cocaine cocaine hydrochloride , but this is a complex process, requiring more skill, equipment, and expensive, difficult to obtain chemicals. Police raids have revealed that some of these laboratories have a workforce of up to thirty people — very different operations than the rudimentary Chapare cocaine paste production units. To process one kilo of cocaine paste, the pichicateros require liters of gasoline. However, the Morales administration has put tight controls on the movement of precursor chemicals, especially gasoline. Chapare gas stations only allow people to buy one tank per day, and they add pink dye to it, which makes it less attractive for cocaine paste production. Other precursors, including chalk and caustic soda, also come at a premium because of tight government controls. When the pichicateros cannot get hold of the correct chemicals, they improvise — for example, using cement instead of chalk to process paste. Coca leaf represents the most costly element in the production chain. It is also important to note that production is not constant. Pichicateros tend to spend far more time idle than working. This is because it is difficult to obtain the necessary chemicals, which slows or even stalls production. In addition, the pichicateros often lack sufficient capital to cover the costs of the inputs until they have sold their previous batch of paste. As a result of these combined factors, most production sites make less than ten kilos of cocaine paste per month. Just like any other industry, illegal cocaine paste production is stratified, with owners of the means of production and others who sell their labor. The laborers or peones: Peones represent the majority of the workers in the pichicata industry. They undertake manual tasks such as carrying the heavy bags of coca and precursor chemicals to the production site, stomping the coca, shredding coca leaves, and acting as lookouts. The majority are either recent migrants to the region who have come looking for work as either builders or farm hands or local teenagers who want to earn extra spending money. It is also very risky: if caught, they face eight years in prison. A 14 year-old pisa-coca described wading around in a toxic mulch of coca, gasoline, and acid for several hours a day. The fumes gave him a terrible headache, and his flimsy rubber boots let in acid that turned his toe nails green. They are mid-level technicians familiar with the basics of processing cocaine paste, i. The quimico can complement this wage by skimming off any extra production and selling it privately. The Owners: At the top of the local production ladder are the owners of these rudimental production sites. The owners are few in number; they might be richer peasants or non-resident immigrants from elsewhere in Bolivia. If caught, the owner faces 15 years in prison; consequently, on the whole they do not work directly in cocaine paste production. The laborers, chemists, and even the owners do not get rich from pichicata — all it allows them to do is to save up to buy their own plot of farm land, small business, car, or even a house. These are modest ambitions — enough to buy a beat-up Toyota station-wagon, not a Mercedes Benz or a Land Rover. Their rural houses are often made from rough cut planks and do not have running water, sanitation or electricity. Many claim that once they have amassed the requisite capital to invest in a productive activity then they will abandon their illegal activities. Older farmers confirmed that they had done just that; after acquiring their own plot of land where no credit was available, they had decided the risks far outweighed the benefits and had subsequently dedicated themselves to farming instead. However, contrary to journalistic hyperbole, this economic dynamism cannot simply be attributed to a presumed rise in drug production and trafficking. The Chapare looks so much richer today because people are now prepared to invest their money in the region. Finally, the government has front-loaded development assistance to the region and farmers are taking advantage of these opportunities, including crop substitution and fish farming projects. Over the past five years, the federations have made a concerted effort to tackle cocaine paste production. The leader of each local level union organizes frequent commissions composed of union leaders and community members to check that no member is producing cocaine paste on his or her land. If a functioning or even abandoned production site is found, then the union will impose sanctions against the landowner, including prohibiting them from growing coca, or in extreme cases, confiscating the land and expelling the culprit from the community. The threats are real, and the majority of coca farmers will not allow the pichicateros to set up production sites on their land. I worry about him being tempted by the easy cash. Drug production is seen as bringing shame on the community — indeed, one leader likened it to the whole community having a criminal record. Moreover, association with drug trafficking can have serious material consequences. One union leader described how the coca grower-dominated municipal government will suspend public works investment to any community suspected of being involved in cocaine paste production. In a region where many people do not have access to roads or basic services, this represents a significant threat. Another important factor is jealousy; people do not like to think that someone is making more money at their expense, and this motivates them to denounce pichicateros to the union and to the police. Finally, as the Chapare coca growers identify strongly with the goals of the ruling Movement Towards Socialism MAS administration, they genuinely do not want to make the government look bad by engaging in illicit activities. The coca growers know that if President Morales fails and another government enters, they face the prospect of a return to the militarized coca eradication of the s and s, which generated widespread poverty and provoked violent conflicts in the region. Previously, during the US-backed drug war, they could process cocaine paste close to the main roads and towns, safe in the knowledge that their neighbors would not denounce them to the authorities. US-financed repression against growers was effective in convincing all Chapare residents that the police were enemies. As a result of this pressure, the pichicateros have been forced to alter their behavior, setting up production sites in ever more remote areas in the middle of the night. They never maintain a production site in one place for more than two weeks. Often absentee landowners are unaware production ever occurred on their property. The majority of the workers, including pisa-cocas, peones, and quimicos, receive relatively low wages for dangerous work. These people should therefore be thought of as the proletariat of the cocaine trade. Given the low wages, harmful working conditions and the risk of being caught and facing eight to fifteen years in jail , processing and transporting cocaine paste are not particularly attractive options. As a result, the bulk of people who produce and traffic cocaine paste are temporary migrants or young people who do not own their own land and who have little to lose. Meanwhile, the coca union members who own land would prefer a quiet life dedicated to farming. Contrary to the dominant and often dramatic portrayals in the media, the coca unions are not complicit with drug trafficking organizations. Rather, the Federations take their role in the fight against drug trafficking very seriously. There has been a shift in the coca grower perception of drug trafficking. However, it would be unrealistic to expect the coca unions to be able to stamp out drug production completely — even the DEA was unable to achieve that. Subscribe to our newsletter to receive a weekly digest of the latest organized crime news and stay up-to-date on major events, trends, and criminal dynamics from across the region. Donate today to empower research and analysis about organized crime in Latin America and the Caribbean, from the ground up. Skip to content. Production Costs and Other Profit Constraints To process one kilo of cocaine paste, the pichicateros require liters of gasoline. Labor Just like any other industry, illegal cocaine paste production is stratified, with owners of the means of production and others who sell their labor. Pichicata and the Local Economy The laborers, chemists, and even the owners do not get rich from pichicata — all it allows them to do is to save up to buy their own plot of farm land, small business, car, or even a house. Stay Informed With InSight Crime Subscribe to our newsletter to receive a weekly digest of the latest organized crime news and stay up-to-date on major events, trends, and criminal dynamics from across the region.
Cultivation of the coca plant in Bolivia today represents an important source of revenue, as a high percentage of the inhabitants are addicted to coca-leaf.
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Cultivation of the coca plant in Bolivia today represents an important source of revenue, as a high percentage of the inhabitants are addicted to coca-leaf chewing. As a medicinal herb, coca has a long history which goes back to the Incas and the colonial period, but the Bolivian native's habit of chewing coca leaf during working hours and using it as an essential item of diet originated during the colonial period when the conquistadores, convinced that there was wealth in the soil of Peru, used the Indians to mine gold and silver, keeping them supplied the while with coca leaves of which they had learned the anaesthetic properties from the Indians themselves. The Indian or the half-breed, when employed on the particularly arduous work of minerals deep down in the mines, chews coca leaf in order to mitigate the pangs of hunger and thirst and to be able to make the muscular effort required of him. The effects of coca chewing, seemingly beneficial, are in reality harmful, mentally and physically, to its addicts. The coca chewer is an odd figure: he shuns society and is shunned in return because of the wad of coca in his mouth with its nauseating odour. The Yungas region, which is where the coca plant is cultivated in Bolivia, lies in the departments of La Paz and Cochabamba and has a very special climate. Thus this product has become an economic, social and political factor of considerable importance. Although the theory that the coca leaf has a harmful effect on those who chew it is accepted, economically the opposite is true: greater consumption of coca means greater wealth. Economic laws govern the life of nations and still more the lives of individuals. It will be remembered, perhaps, that England imposed opium smoking in China by force. For the sake of money, man is apt to commit the most inhuman actions and to lose all conceptions of moral value. In Bolivia, whenever any suggestions have been made in connexion with the need to stamp out coca-leaf chewing and to replace the coca shrub by some other commonly used crop, other interests have always come before those of the nation as a whole. What coca chewing does to the Indian is of no account. What matters is increased business. Thus, despite the report of the United Nations Commission which visited the country in November - a report, be it said, which clearly shows that coca-leaf chewing is harmful and should therefore be abolished - the parties engaged in the lucrative coca trade continue to claim that Bolivian coca has a low cocaine content - from. The same parties assert that the use of coca is essential at high altitudes. However, although these qualities deserve to be taken into account, it is certain that they neither compensate for nor mitigate by one jot the harmful effects of the coca leaf. For who can deny that the Bolivian Indian suffers from malnutrition and that the coca leaf has made him a repulsive sight? The traditional sobriety and endurance of the Andean labourer are a myth, as is the conviction which has been gradually fostered that these qualities are due to the beneficial effects of the coca plant. The Indian is neither temperate nor resistant. He does not eat enough because he cannot afford to do so; and on the rare occasions when he can afford to eat his fill, he does not take sufficient nourishment because cocaine debilitates the digestive organs. The wandering Indian of the Andes, who stoically covers hundreds of kilometres with a pack weighing several kilogrammes on his back without feeling real fatigue, is able to do so because of the coca leaf which stimulates his muscular activity. How can an ill-nourished body possibly have endurance? What happens is that for a few short years the Indian makes an effort which is out of all proportion with his real physical powers, and then becomes a human derelict until his death, which usually occurs at an early age. The opinion of those familiar with the subject is divided. Some maintain, on the basis of scientific studies, that the coca leaf is harmful, while others, subservient to private interests, produce specious arguments to prove that the coca leaf is of incalculable benefit to mankind, both in medicine and in nutrition. Yet, whosoever seeks the real truth in this matter must admit that private economic interests must not take precedence over the health of an entire nation and that the time has come to redress a wrong suffered by the population for hundreds of years. Is it necessary to continue to discuss whether or not coca is harmful? What is necessary now is to find the means of replacing the coca plant by other crops of universal economic value. In a word, I believe that the country's social and economic bonds need strengthening, and the coca leaf seems to be the major obstacle. The purpose of this article is to spread abroad the views on coca chewing held by Bolivian doctors and others who have studied the problem, and to suggest the substitution of other economically valuable crops for the coca plant. Very little has been written in Bolivia on the subject of the coca leaf, and such works as exist do not bear the hallmark of patient and careful research. According to Dr. In , Dr. In April of the same year, Humberto Palza published a four-page comment on Professor Claude Joseph's talks regarding the eradication of the Ulo pest coca-leaf butterfly Eloria sp. La coca boliviana Society of Landowners of Yungas : Claude Joseph 4. This work, like the preceding works dealing with coca in its agricultural aspects, indicates no desire on the part of the technicians to promote the cultivation of coca but merely represents a contribution to the study of problems associated with that plant. In September , Dr. The author says that 'when the Indian chews coca leaf he adds llujta soda ash producing an infusion in his mouth which brings about almost complete extraction of cocaine. When this juice is swallowed and reaches the stomach, it is mixed with the gastric juices which normally contain hydrochloric acid; this leads to the formation of cocaine hydrochloride which is exactly like the product manufactured in factories and laboratories'. Perhaps the most interesting and valuable work on the coca plant by a Bolivian expert is one written by Dr. While it is not, strictly speaking, the result of scientific research, it is based on professional experience and observation. It has the further merit of furnishing a scientific basis for the campaign against the dangerous effects of coca chewing and of inspiring a number of other students to produce works of the same type and with the same viewpoint. It contains some very pertinent observations, such as the following: 'Whereas cocaine addiction is associated with night life, with loose women and their lovers seeking to stimulate sexual desire, the coca chewing habit is ingrained among the Indians, the farmers and miners, who use it to arouse physical energy and to deaden pain, loneliness, hunger and thirst The average quantity of coca chewed a day is 50 to grammes or more, increasing with age and sex men chew more than women , the type and duration of the work done, the maximum physical effort required and the mental make-up The adult Indian consumes by chewing 50 grammes of coca a day, and Bolivian coca contains from. It might be deduced from these facts that the Bolivian Indian consumes on the average 39 centigrammes of cocaine a day through the digestive system; but if we make every possible allowance and assume that he absorbs only one-third of that amount, the resulting quantity of 13 centigrammes is still a toxic dose. It should be added that the medicinal dosage in, for example, the British pharmacopoeia is 2 to 8 grammes of coca and 1 to 3 centigrammes of cocaine. Consequently, the 50 grammes of coca leaf or 39 centigrammes of cocaine consumed by our indigenous inhabitants represent highly toxic doses, particularly when taken daily all one's life. The same review reprinted a chapter from Dr. Taking the same position as Dr. The quantity consumed, at the average price of 60 bolivianos per kilogramme, amounts to million bolivianos. Assuming that a kilogramme of coca leaf contains 7. In round numbers, 20, kilogrammes of cocaine are used annually for the intoxication of our working classes. As a gramme of cocaine sells for 20 bolivianos, this intoxication represents million bolivianos which are paid, at the expense of the country's economy, to maintain at least two-thirds of the national population in a state of mental impoverishment and physical prostration. The Archivos Bolivianos de Higiene Mental also published the one technical study available, a study which was the result of patient research conducted on a group of delinquent coca addicts in a prison at Lima, Peru. The author, who rationally planned the course of his inquiry in advance, carefully noted all the relevant data in this work and there can be no doubt that his conclusions are valid. Some of them are as follows:. Disturbances of perception found in cases of slight or medium intoxication included changes of visual and auditory acuity and paraeidola, auditory, visual and kinesthetic illusions and changes of temporal perception. In more serious states of intoxication, fantastic visions, macropsia, micropsia, dysmorphopsia, disturbances of spatial perception and in a few cases pseudo-hallucinations and true auditory and visual hallucinations were experienced. Among disturbances of thought, the most frequent are tachypsychism, eidetic representations and obsessions. In states of great intoxication, there are interceptions, ebullition of ideas, confused thought and automatism of thought. States of autism, full of wish fantasies with an impression of vivid reality, are frequent. This is probably one of the most characteristic disturbances of coca addiction. In some cases perceptive delusions and exaggerated self-importance are present and only in rare cases of great intoxication are there true delusions. The symptoms of abstinence are always slighter and less prolonged than those observed in other drug addictions. The symptoms of coca addiction or coca mania are similar to those of cocaine addiction, from which they differ only in that they develop more slowly and the principal symptoms disappear during periods of abstinence. P Balcazar. Lastly, mention should be made of a small work which represents a digest of facts noted by chroniclers and writers of the last century, and which sets out to prove that coca is of benefit as a nutritive element in the Indian's diet. The pamphlet also contains a petition from the Chairman of the Society of Landowners of Yungas to the Minister of Foreign Relations, analysing the position of coca as regards international trade and urging the Bolivian Government to present a formal request that Bolivian coca leaf should be removed from the list of narcotic drugs drawn up by the Second International Opium Conference. Coca was originally cultivated by the Incas, although not on as large a scale as today. The legend is that it was considered sacred and that the nobles burned or chewed its leaves in sign of religious worship. According to some chroniclers, 'the origin of the coca plant as explained in mythology is that a woman who came down from the sky was turned into a coca plant by supernatural powers; the reason for her coming was that men would have something with which to calm and prolong sleep'. In other words, the antiquity of the coca plant, or the period when it was first cultivated in South America, cannot be definitely established. There is proof that it existed before the Incas; this is borne out by discoveries in ancient tombs. Enough has been said about the cultivation of coca in the Yungas, but it should be added that trade in the coca leaf has grown to the same extent as the work performed by peasants and miners. In other words, the consumption of and trade in coca have increased in the same ratio as the output of minerals. This means that the country people who habitually chewed coca, but in small quantities, must have increased their rations when they turned to mining, perhaps in the belief that coca was a sure means of sustenance. As previously noted, coca has become an important political, economic and social factor in Bolivia. In the field of politics, the Society of Landowners of Yungas and the Coca Customs Office make their views heard and wield considerable influence in the national Government. Many members of these institutions hold office in the public administration. Economically speaking, coca is the most important vegetable export and is consumed in the country itself in large quantities. More than a million and a half inhabitants consume about 4 million kilogrammes of coca leaf a year. The place taken by the coca leaf as an article of national consumption is shown below. According to the figures, taxes on coca for that year amounted to 28,, But most important of all is the social aspect of the question. A huge section of the Bolivian population, comprising the ignorant masses peasants and miners full of superstitions and prejudices, is addicted to coca-leaf chewing. In the large agricultural section of western Bolivia, the owners pay the miserabe wages earned by the peasants in coca, and the latter will not work without an adequate ration of coca leaves. In the mines, coca leaf is the worker's most important article of consumption. It is impossible to say what would happen if the consumption of coca were to be prohibited from one day to the next Most likely, there would be domestic disturbances with nation-wide repercussions.. For the reasons given above, I believe that cultivation of the coca plant should be abolished, but in such a way as to avoid economic upheavals and social disturbances. In other words, a substitute crop must be sought for coca. If it is really desired to eliminate coca consumption, the proper method is to substitute other economically valuable crops for the coca plant. A few ideas on the subject are given below. In the Yungas the coca plant Erythroxylon coca is cultivated by primitive methods, which represent no advance over those used in the Inca and colonial periods. A coca plantation in the Yungas is merely a series of narrow terraces with low sustaining walls built of mud; even so, coca is cultivated with outstanding care if we compare it with the plantations of coffee, citrus fruit trees, bananas, etc. Citrus fruit trees are planted in small irregular groves, coffee bushes are grown as a live fence, and banana trees are planted on steep slopes and are given no care. When the time comes to replace coca by other economically profitable crops, an analysis will have to be made of all the crops commonly grown in the Yungas, account being taken of the agricultural, economic and social factors involved. According to statistical data, there are about 6, hectares under coca in the Yungas region of La Paz, and about in Cochabamba. The yield per hectare is approximately kilogrammes, giving an annual income of some 20, bolivianos. The national production of coca is estimated at 4,, kilogrammes of which over , kilogrammes are exported to Argentina yearly. Coffee Coffee production in the country amounts to about 1,, kilogrammes with an average yield of 2, kilogrammes per hectare, the area under coffee being estimated at a little over hectares tables 1 and 2 below. In and , , kilogrammes of coffee were imported, to a value of over a million and a half bolivianos table 3. From the above figures it will be seen that coffee, with an average yield of 2, kilogrammes per hectare, can give an income of 15, to 20, bolivianos. Coffee has the added advantage that it may be exported to other countries in unlimited quantities. The cultivation of this plant is quite new in South America. With the exception of Peru and Brazil, no country has as yet tested it adequately. In Bolivia attempts to grow tea are being made in the Yungas and in Larecaja. The tea produced in those regions is reported to be of good quality and to give a high yield. As shown by the above figures, the consumption of tea in Bolivia has doubled from one year to the next, indicating probable further increases in the future. Moreover, the yields of this product, estimated at 50 grammes per plant, are as high as or higher than those of coca. Both tea and coffee can be exported to the neighbouring countries. The taste as well as the yield of the tea could be greatly improved by, say, importing from the Dutch Indies and other producing countries plants of a high-yield variety, as that stock will give better results than the seedliwngs which are now used. Other products Apart from the crops mentioned above, citrus fruit trees, bananas, avocados, etc. It may be noted that the Yungas regions, which are the largest producers of citrus fruits and bananas in Bolivia, are barely able to supply the local needs of La Paz, and that there is a large domestic market for those products. Perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of the coca problem is to find a substitute crop. When it is considered, however, that citrus fruits, coffee, tea, etc. Generally speaking, there will be need for a comprehensive campaign through the press and by means of lectures, posters, etc. To repeat the words of Dr. Saravia: 'We must take away from the Indian the vice of coca so that he will feed himself better, or feed him better so that he will forget the vice of coca. Ninety per cent of the coca produced in Bolivia is consumed by the indigenous population and the rest is exported. No clinical or laboratory studies have been made so far on the biological effects of coca chewing in Bolivia, but several Peruvian studies, based on research. The time has come to initiate measures for the substitution of the coca plant in the Yungas by other economically profitable crops. This problem should be studied and the possibility explored of raising tea, coffee and various kinds of fruit, account being taken of the social aspects affecting the consumer and the economic effects likely to be felt by the producer. From a human standpoint and even more so from a national point of view, the obligation to initiate a campaign against the use of coca can no longer be evaded. Posnansky, United Nations. Office on Drugs and Crime. Site Search. Topics Crime prevention and criminal justice. Posnansky Courtesy Mr. Some of them are as follows: Disturbances of perception found in cases of slight or medium intoxication included changes of visual and auditory acuity and paraeidola, auditory, visual and kinesthetic illusions and changes of temporal perception. Disturbances of the instinctive tendencies sexual, self-assertive and hunger are frequent. Product Tons Potatoes. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
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