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Buy Cannabis Kayseri

Kayseri, situated in Central Anatolia, Turkey, is a sizable and industrialized city serving as the capital of Kayseri Province. İncesu remains distinct, featuring a largely non-conjoined buffer zone. In Turkey, cannabis regulations are notably strict, and any involvement with cannabis is strictly forbidden. The situation differs for tourists. If tourists find themselves in a legal bind with the authorities, there is a notable possibility that some law enforcement officers may be open to accepting a bribe as a resolution. This highlights the contrast in treatment between locals and tourists when it comes to cannabis-related incidents in Turkey. Many younger individuals are cannabis enthusiasts, and approaching them with a positive attitude often results in their willingness to assist you. Staying within bustling crowds and avoiding dimly lit alleyways is a prudent practice. Even without established connections, obtaining high-quality cannabis in Turkey is still achievable. Hashish is also prevalent in Turkey and readily available for purchase. I was here for a long time and after so many failed attempts at getting WEED, the valet at my hotel introduced me to Zig. He sells the best quality WEED around here. You can reach him at zigroll gmail. Thanks to him , we are having the time of our lives here. Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Post Comment. One comment I was here for a long time and after so many failed attempts at getting WEED, the valet at my hotel introduced me to Zig. Get some good THC weed from Zig and thank me later. Leave a Reply Cancel Reply Your email address will not be published.

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Anatolian hemp Cannabis sativa L. Cannabis sativa L. Valued for its durable fiber and nutritious seed, hemp was an important subsistence crop in many rural households. Throughout the Ottoman Empire hemp cordage, fabrics and oakum were maritime necessities and internationally traded commodities. During the twentieth century commercial hemp fiber and seed production levels fluctuated due to regulatory and market forces, eventually leading to a steady decline commencing in the s. Hemp production in Turkey only survives today in specialized market settings, although recently production has increased. Historical data largely gleaned from Turkish language sources is presented along with personal communications and field observations. La Cannabis sativa L. A Cannabis sativa L. Hemp Cannabis sativa L. Cannabis did not originate in Anatolia and varieties from other regions were likely introduced at several times for differing purposes, as indicated by its phenotypic diversity. Hemp rope was a necessity for the Ottoman Imperial Navy Osmanli Donanmasi and its production was mandated by the sultanate, and production continued well after the establishment of the Turkish Republic. During the twentieth century cannabis drug regulations and market forces impinged upon hemp fiber and seed growing. Hemp cultivation and processing never became efficiently mechanized, and fiber and seed crops are still harvested and processed by hand. Production peaked in and began to steadily decline reaching a low in , beginning to increase in recent years. Historical research relied on published books available in libraries and private collections, peer-reviewed articles accessed via the Internet, and personal communications with area researchers. Fieldwork was undertaken from through throughout many regions of Turkey to determine the location and extent of present-day Cannabis cultivation for fiber and seed, and to interview local respondents involved in hemp cultivation and local governance concerning the recent history of Cannabis , its traditional uses and details concerning its cultivation for seed and fiber processing, as well as spinning and weaving and rope making. While this linguistic circumstance lends much confusion to the interpretation of English language references, the Turkish language is blessed with more discrete terms for hemp - kendir or kenevir - which refer only to the Cannabis plant and its various products. In present-day Turkey both Cannabis plants and hemp textiles are most commonly called kendir , while kenevir and related terms are less frequently used to denote cannabis products in general and especially drug cannabis. Both words originated long ago within differing cultures and followed separate pathways into common Turkish usage. Anatolia forms the westernmost land mass of Asia, bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west, and makes up the majority of present-day Turkey lying to the east of the Bosporus Strait joining the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Although Turkey is largely surrounded by water it borders present-day Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq and Syria to the east, and Bulgaria and Greece across the Bosporus to the west of Anatolia. Anatolia's complex geologic history produced a highly divided terrain consisting of a central plateau nestled between two mountain ranges that converge in the east, with lowlands limited to a few narrow coastal strips along the seacoasts. Cannabis populations may have reached Anatolia from three different origins and at different times. European Cannabis likely evolved within a glacial refuge in the Caucasus-Colchis region bordering the Black Sea coast near eastern Anatolia, and from there it diffused across much of Europe, where it was widely utilized early on for its fiber. Based on the ecological requirements of Cannabis for a temperate climate with summer rainfall, Anatolia may have been one of the first places C. Throughout the Himalayan foothills at temperate elevations Cannabis is grown for fiber, seed and drug production and feral plants abound. A possible avenue for the earliest dispersals of Cannabis may have been along a narrow corridor from an additional glacial refuge in present-day southwestern China through northern South Asia and the Arabian Peninsula to the Middle East. Centuries earlier the climate in the steppe regions of Central Asia was much as it is today and dispersal of Cannabis along the trade routes crossing this region from China where it has a long history as a food, fiber and medicinal plant is also likely 2. Once in Anatolia, Cannabis encountered many habitats conducive to its growth and proliferation. Human occupation of Anatolia dates back to at least the Upper Paleolithic Period. It is within this cultural crossroads that hemp fiber products such as cordage were made. Eastern Anatolia was a center of the Neolithic Revolution and one of the early regions of agriculture and plant and animal domestication. Indo-European languages have been spoken there for at least four thousand years and for over five millennia Anatolia has been home to a series of historically significant cultures. This is a region where hemp rope and textiles were still commonly made in the twentieth century. The Hittites were a cultural blend of indigenous Hattian peoples with semi-nomadic Indo-European immigrants from the Central Eurasian steppes, and may have been among the peoples who introduced hemp spinning and weaving to Anatolia. According to Berkol 6 , records of a seventh century BCE expedition by seafarers from Miletus, an ancient Greek city on the Aegean coast of Anatolia, mention that residents of the Colchis Basin region in present-day Georgia cultivated hemp and sold hemp textiles along the Black Sea coast and possibly into Persia as well. Cannabis was already well known to Greek and Roman cultures by the beginning of the current era 2. Hemp cultivation and processing was most likely introduced long before the Turkic migrations either directly from the nearby Caucasus-Colchis region or from Greece or Rome via trade. Historically, Turkic peoples were nomadic herders and practiced little settled agriculture. Hemp is generally a crop of sedentary farmers, or swidden agricultural cultures such as the Hmong minority of China and northern Southeast Asia 8 9 , and hemp cultivation is not well suited to a perpetually nomadic lifestyle. Nomadism has declined steadily for more than a century in Anatolia due to obstructions resulting from the establishment of national borders and increased settled occupation of grazing lands. As Turkic peoples settled and took up agriculture, they began to split their time between village life and seasonal pastoralism. The Seljuk Turks must have been familiar with hemp cultivation long before they permanently settled Anatolia in the eleventh century. Agriculture was established early on in eastern Eurasia including present-day Mongolia, where the Jurchuen and Xiongnu cultural antecedents of the Turkic peoples are thought to have originated, and Cannabis was already likely grown by them as it was in ancient Han China and across much of the Far East. Ancient Cannabis pollen, fibers and seeds have been recovered from several sites in Central Asia 2 dating from well before Turkic-related peoples began their westward dispersal around years ago, and they certainly could have carried Cannabis seeds with them. Cannabis cultivation for fiber has a long history in Turkey. Hemp ropes and woven products such as rugs, grain sacks and saddlebags were widely produced in two areas of Turkey -one in the northern central Anatolian mountains inland from the southern shore of the Black Sea northeast of Ankara, and another in the hills of southwestern Anatolia south of Istanbul. Anatolian Cannabis evolutionary origins and genetic diversity. Hemp fiber has a lengthy history across temperate Eurasia, and cultures in various regions have utilized differing localized Cannabis landraces. The putative ancestor of all Cannabis likely originated in central Eurasia millions of years ago. It is hypothesized that through geographic and genetic isolation within glacial refugia it evolved into the two major taxa extant today -European C. Hemp fiber derived from both species has a long history of textile use across temperate regions of Eurasia from far eastern China, Korea and Japan C. Hemp was traditionally grown into the twenty-first century by many Tibeto-Burman tribal groups living along a narrow corridor extending from Yunnan province, China, through extreme northern Burma and across the Himalayan foothills to western Nepal 2. All of these groups used Cannabis as a source of both fiber and seed. Farther west, cultural preferences and the aridity of Arabian and Persian deserts precluded hemp fiber cultivation, which does not reappear until the Anatolian region of present-day Turkey. Figure 1: Anatolian Cannabis germplasm distribution and proposed use. Based on samples and data collected by the Russian commission, Type IV Cannabis from Kayseri and Konya exhibited the greatest diversity. Forensic research 13 14 15 identified two genetically distinct groups of Cannabis landrace varieties present in Turkey, lower drug types in the west and higher drug types in the east, with some overlap in the inland Black Sea region around Kastamonu. This may reflect two or more separate introductions from divergent regions at different times and for various uses, initially from the Caucasus for fiber and seed, and later from India via the Middle East for drug production. Cannabis has grown in Anatolia for centuries valued for its strong durable fibers, nutritious seed, and psychoactive compounds, and it was cultivated and utilized across a large part of the region well into the twentieth century. Turkish hemp fiber processing strategies are most similar to Europe while sharing less in common with East Asia, and likely either came from Europe or were indigenously developed. For a comparison of European and Asian hemp fiber processing strategies see Clarke 16 In addition to supplying the Ottoman military with a strategic commodity, hemp cordage was a valuable export product. Until very recently hemp rope was still produced in Amasya 18 , Kastamonu and Samsun provinces. Smaller diameter hemp twine was also used domestically as well as exported. The thick hemp fabric was very durable and served for decades before the roof was rebuilt. One of the most common uses of hemp fiber today is to seal threaded pipe joints, a technique used since long before Teflon tape was invented. Look under European kitchen and bathroom sinks for evidence of its enduring use. According to local hemp fiber merchants, until the recent invention of sealants impervious to organic solvents, hemp fiber was used to seal natural gas pipelines. Tiret 18 mentions that tow short hemp fibers produced as a byproduct of rope making were collected and sold to paper mills as a pulp fiber source. During the autumn, dried stalks were transported from hemp growing regions to neighboring urban areas and sold at the weekly market to be used as winter coverings for dirt floors. Layers of parallel stalks were laid at right angles to each other until the entire floor was covered to an even thickness of about 20 centimeters, layers of hemp tarpaulins and rugs were laid on top of the stalks, and the flooring was compressed to a thickness of around five centimeters by walking back and forth across it. Air spaces within and between the hollow stalks provided insulation from the cold winter ground. Near Konya, hemp stalks were rolled flat and woven into simple mats. In many regions the inner wood of hemp stalks remaining after peeling away the fibrous bark was used for kindling. Hemp seeds kendir tohumu are another valuable product and have likely been an item of trade across Anatolia since Cannabis was first grown. In addition to the annual necessity of providing sowing seed for hemp fiber and seed production, hemp seeds were pressed to express their oil in much the same way as flax, and used for cooking as well as lubrication, waterproofing cloth, and as lamp fuel. Nutritious hemp seeds rich in protein as well as omega -3 and omega -6 essential fatty acids 19 were traditionally eaten raw and roasted, used in porridge and often baked into breads that Turkish people recall made them feel relaxed and drowsy. High-THC drug varieties and hashish production may have come to Anatolia during the sixteenth century when water pipes narghile were introduced from India via Egypt. The Fethiye region of southwestern Anatolia and the Macedonian Balkans were sources of hashish during the Greek Rembitika music era of the s and s conversation with E. Polat; unreferenced. The accumulation of sticky resin powder is a natural consequence of threshing seeds 22 and hashish was likely produced in many regions across Anatolia where Cannabis was grown. In Samsun and Kastamonu provinces today, male and female plants are harvested for fiber in mid-August, and for both fiber and seed in early October. Female plants are dried and threshed to remove the seeds which also dislodges the resin glands , and it is likely that in earlier times the sticky powder rich in THC was collected and used to make hashish. Little went to waste in traditional village households, yet today, the remains of the female plants must be destroyed as stipulated by the hemp seed cultivation rules. Illicit drug Cannabis cultivation in Turkey continues 23 and may be on the rise. According to police statistics 84 tons of cannabis were seized in Some cannabis drugs are imported into Turkey, but much of the supply is grown domestically. Hashish is certainly the most infamous of Turkish Cannabis products and its fall from grace in the s undermined the already shaky economic footing of hemp fiber and seed production as Cannabis cultivation for all uses began to decline. Historical production and use of Cannabis in Anatolia. The written history of Anatolian hemp production spans many decades and is best considered in two phases; the Ottoman Empire period beginning in the late thirteenth century and lasting until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in , when began the ongoing Modern period. Cannabis was likely grown for centuries on small family farms to supply domestic consumption of cordage, fabrics, and seed prior to the inception of the Ottoman Empire. During the Ottoman period hemp was grown for use by the Ottoman military, who controlled its production, taxation and transport 11 to secure supplies of fiber for making anchor ropes, rigging and lashing lines, twine, canvas sail cloth, oakum, fishing nets and other maritime uses. The earliest records of Anatolian hemp trade date from the fourteenth century when Genoese and Venetian merchants exported raw unspun hemp from Manisa and İzmir in the Aegean region. During the fourteenth through the middle fifteenth centuries coastal Black Sea towns stretching from Sinop to Rize were centers for hemp fiber cultivation and rope making. As sea trade and warfare expanded during the sixteenth century, hemp fiber products became increasingly important strategic commodities and were in high demand conversation with S. Yildiz; unreferenced. Russian supplies dominated the hemp trade in northern Europe, where from late eighteenth through the early twentieth centuries England, France and Spain fought wars over rights to the strategic trade The Ottoman Empire controlled its own supplies of hemp as well as timber, pitch and iron from within its vast territories, and by the mid-sixteenth century had eclipsed Venetian naval and trade domination of the Mediterranean. As Ottoman Imperial Navy Osmanli Donanmasi power and influence grew, domestic hemp production came under the control of the Ottoman state to assure a predictable and plentiful supply satisfied by taxation in kind, with every hemp producing region collecting fiber from farmers to stock their storehouses conversation with S. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent Kastamonu was an important producer to fulfill the needs of the navy and a hemp commission was established in neighboring Samsun Sixteenth century Ottoman records also mention taxation of hemp in the villages of the Adala Plain along the Gediz River. Eventually, the eastern Black Sea region within easy contact by sea from Istanbul became the center of Ottoman hemp production, and as shipyards were established along the eastern Black Sea coastline, farmers increasingly satisfied their tax obligations by supplying hemp fiber to the state under a fixed price system conversation with S. Cloth manufactured in and around Rize supplied local needs and was also exported to various parts of the Ottoman Empire. The nineteenth century Janissary corps, members of the palace and even the Ottoman Sultans wore clothes and underwear sewn from this fabric. Shirts and dresses of hemp linen fabric are cooling to wear and were desired by people living in hot climates. Production and sales were taxed, and trade remained strong until the mid-nineteenth century The Ottoman state preserved its monopoly on hemp trade well into the nineteenth century by establishing exclusive lifelong procurement contracts with powerful families. Hemp was so vitally important that hemp farmers were exempted from military service. British reports from estimated that hemp production from the Samsun region alone amounted to about tons annually conversation with S. Mid-nineteenth century Ottoman government needs were largely met by merchants in the Trabzon, Samsun and Ordu regions along the Black Sea coast. The government enforced their edicts through favored concessions and tax exemptions combined with threats to local governors, as well as fines and even prison sentences levied against non-compliant suppliers. During the nineteenth century hemp was also exported to other nations 27 and both the inland Aegean and Black Sea regions produced high-quality yarns and ropes conversation with S. Foreign companies also petitioned the government to lease land and build facilities to produce hemp fiber for export, but these requests were largely disregarded by the Ottoman government During the late nineteenth century cotton began to compete for market share and hemp cloth production diminished. Several times during the first decade of the twentieth century local officials petitioned the government for tax and import levy exemptions to promote the hemp industry, as well as funds to upgrade storage facilities in need of repair and maintenance Hemp production declined following the First World War During the early years of the Turkish Republic the new government investigated the modernization of hemp production, and financing was approved to establish the Kastamonu Kendir Rehabilitation and Export Company. However, in and Kastamonu officials again petitioned the Turkish government to establish a factory, without a positive response, and apparently the factory was never built In , the Turkish government again committed to supporting hemp processing in Kastamonu and also sought assistance from foreign experts. Their conclusion was that Turkey lacked processing infrastructure and that the inadequate retting ponds produced fiber of unpredictable quality In , the Ministry of Agriculture again discussed efforts to increase hemp production and sent a representative to the factory. By , approximately 40, hectares of land in Turkey were devoted to hemp fiber and seed cultivation. Although fiber quality was by then relatively high, without modern infrastructure Turkey found it difficult to compete internationally with countries such as Russia and Italy, and Turkey ranked tenth in production of hemp fiber In , the government again highlighted the need to establish infrastructure to support hemp production. Tea production began in Rize and Trabzon provinces around and a coarser cloth was woven to make tea sacks. In Rize province nearly looms were still operational in In Rize and Trabzon by the s cotton was woven on an estimated 10, looms 26 , and soon with the spread of tea growing, hemp cultivation was almost completely abandoned 6. By , this factory operated spindles and 60 looms, and produced metric tons of twine and 2,, meters of cloth 6. The factory eventually switched to spinning and weaving jute imported from India and remained in operation until It was privatized in and eventually closed due to the failure of maintaining its Italian spinning equipment Until recently nearby Samsun province's agricultural economy included hemp cultivation and processing. Since , new markets for hemp have rekindled increased production in Samsun, and hemp is also cultivated once again in Kastamonu province. Anatolian hemp crops are grown and processed in much the same way as in other regions worldwide. Historical Turkish hemp producing regions share either a warm continental or Mediterranean climate; and a rainy March and April perfect for germination and early canopy establishment with steadily decreasing summer rains enough to maintain stalk growth through the driest month of August when harvesting and drying the stalks are facilitated by dry weather. Hemp crops may be irrigated when rainfall proves insufficient. Where hemp is grown in the inland Aegean region, elevations range from to meters to feet , and in the inland Black Sea and Central regions range from to meters to feet. Fields are preconditioned by plowing in manure and compost, and when the supply of organic nutrients is insufficient supplemental nitrogen fertilizer may be added. Sowing rates result in a final crop density ranging from 35 to plants per square meter. Hemp crops must be sown at high density, so young plants are closely spaced forcing the stalks to compete for sunlight and elongate rapidly while suppressing lateral branching, promoting long fiber growth and facilitating easy handling during harvest and processing. Developing hemp crops form a tight canopy of leaves that shade the soil below and inhibit weed growth. Plants begin to flower in July when sexually mature and the stalks cease to elongate -male plants develop short panicles of pollen-producing staminate flowers and female plants develop a single long raceme of pistillate seed-producing flowers. Fiber crops reach a height of two to five meters and are harvested in early to middle August after the male plants begin to shed their pollen, and before the female plants set seed. For finer textile production in the Rize region crops were sown later and harvested earlier when plants reached only two meters in height Hemp crops are harvested by hand as they have been for centuries -most commonly by pulling the plants out with the roots yolmak or plucking , or less often by cutting them with a sickle near soil level. Fields may be irrigated a few days before harvest to facilitate pulling the plants. Three harvest strategies are used in Turkey with varying outcomes. Male and female plants are harvested together in mid-August at peak ripeness, but before seed set, which produces the most uniform fiber yield. Male plants senesce and die in late August and early September after they have released their pollen. Sometimes male plants are harvested at maturity in August for finer fiber production and the female plants are harvested for seed and rougher fiber in October During the October harvest male stalks are separated and retted separately from the female plants that will be dried in the field, threshed of their seeds, and retted last. Seed plants yield a coarser bark with fiber that is used for spinning heavy twine and laying ropes. Both finer and coarser fibers were once utilized throughout Anatolia to spin yarns and weave fabrics for rugs, sacks, saddlebags and other domestic textiles of widely varying color, texture, and aesthetic character. Then they are spread out on the field again for a few more days to continue drying and bleaching in the sun, before being collected and tied into bundles of fifteen to thirty stalks depending on their diameters and propped together in upright conical stooks to further dry before transport to the retting ponds. Stalks that will be retted later are protected from rain, so they do not become discolored by fungal growth. Timing of the ret is a crucial step in the progress toward spinning hemp yarn -too quick and the bark is difficult to peel from the stalk, too slow and the fibers are weakened-, and when performed correctly yields soft and strong fibers perfect for spinning 11 Once bundles of hemp stalks are sufficiently water retted, they are returned to the field and organized in stooks to dry a second time in the sun and wind. However, when stalks are processed for making rope, farmers manually strip away the dry bark beginning at the bottom of each stalk 18 , much like in the East Asian fiber extraction process 16 The sections of inner wood kecin , kunci are used around the home as fuel for kindling and baking hand-made bread The hackle is essentially a wooden board with evenly and closely spaced long iron nails driven through it like teeth in a three-dimensional comb. If the fibers are intended for spinning finer yarn, they are further processed through a series of three hackles with narrow iron teeth spaced closer together to obtain finer and softer fiber bundles tarama. Following this process long fiber yields range from percent of the dry stalk weight The twentieth century was a time of great economic and political changes that impacted Turkish hemp production, and those conditions are reflected in production statistics. Turkish cultivation statistics reported by several sources provide considerable insight into the vacillating levels of Cannabis cultivation for fiber, seed and drug production since the early twentieth century. Turkish researchers were the first to monitor domestic production 28 29 30 31 32 33 , and in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 34 began to compile statistics. Recent cannabis drug seizure statistics are provided by Turkish police to international monitoring agencies 24 Annual hemp fiber and seed production statistics provide data useful in determining the fluctuations in cultivation levels both for Turkey as a whole and for individual provinces. Turkish annual hemp fiber production from through ranged from a high of 14, metric tons in to only one ton in and see Figure 3. Fiber yields from through ranged from to kilograms per hectare with an average yield of kilograms per hectare. Hemp seed production steadily declined from 5, tons in to only one ton in through see Figure 4. Figure 2: Annual hemp fiber production metric tons in Kastamonu province, Turkey - to Figure 3: Turkish hemp fiber production metric tons - to 29 30 31 32 Figure 4: Turkish hemp seed production metric tons - to 29 31 30 32 Since , Turkey has seized larger quantities of cannabis drugs annually than any country in the European Union. In , in all of Turkey 94, kilograms of herbal cannabis and 81, kilograms of cannabis resin were confiscated. The potency percent THC of the herbal cannabis ranged from 0. Turkey is a transshipment point for cannabis drugs, and seizure statistics do not indicate domestic Turkish production alone, although Cannabis is certainly grown in Turkey for drug production today to satisfy both local market and export demands. The League of Nations founded in created an international body to address issues of drug control. Turkey joined the League of Nations in and ratified the convention, and in established the first Turkish drug laws. The League of Nations functioned in this regard until when its international responsibilities were transferred to the United Nations, of which Turkey was an original member. The UNSCND places restrictions on illicit drug production and requires each signatory nation to establish an agency to control Cannabis cultivation. The wording of the laws makes it clear that the intention was to prohibit hashish drug production while allowing hemp fiber and seed cultivation. It was also mandated that the Gendarmerie should budget time for the destruction of unlicensed crops, and that farmers should bear the expenses of destruction. Figure 5: Traditional hemp-producing regions in Turkey. Provinces where hemp cultivation for fiber and seed are presently allowed are indicated in green. Provinces where hemp was traditionally grown but cultivation is no longer allowed are indicated in red. Kastamonu and Samsun provinces were the only remaining regions of hemp fiber production in In , the rules were further amended to establish guidelines for scientific research and hemp breeding, as well as adding guidelines for hemp field inspections and control measures including an application form for farmers to provide their personal information and the locations of their fields. Throughout these changes hemp fiber and seed production remained legal in the remaining approved provinces. Presently, Turkish laws only forbid Cannabis cultivation for drug production, and do not apply to hemp cultivation for fiber and seed in approved provinces Presently Cannabis cultivation is prohibited for any purpose except in the 19 approved provinces and allowed growing areas are determined at the provincial level by the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs MARA. All farmers must receive permission to sow hemp seeds, and if farmers grow without permission they are penalized, although applying for a license to grow hemp is merely a formality and approval can be easily achieved. All hemp growing areas are regularly controlled by MARA from sowing to harvest as per their regulations. Farmers process their own hemp fiber and seed crops. There is no distinction for long and short fibers. According to Turkish Standard of 37 , hemp fibers should be uniform in color and clean of foreign materials with moisture content below 12 percent, but it is not obligatory to follow these standards. The possible effects of drug laws on Turkish hemp production can be further understood in the context of international hemp production statistics for other countries. A steady resurgence brought Chinese production levels to a high of 82, tons in when production again declined reaching the lowest level of 10, tons in , with 12, tons produced in The Soviet Union posted its largest production figures of , tons in but by production had dropped to 14, tons. Production in the Russian Federation was 11, tons in declining to a low of tons in , with tons produced in The smaller Carpathian and Baltic states each passed through their own fluctuations in production. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia reached peak hemp fiber production between and , and production has dropped steadily ever since. Although hemp fiber production in Turkey was also high in and at 10, tons, peak production came much later in when 14, tons were produced and exceeded all other nations in Europe except for the Soviet Union , and production remained strong for a few years before its steady decline to one ton in There has been a small resurgence in hemp fiber production since with three tons, and in , and production reached nine tons. Hemp seed production was highest at tons in dropping to one ton in through , and rising again to three tons in However, since hemp fiber and seed crops continued to be farmed in large quantities during these years, we can assume that either it was not difficult to receive permission, or the regulations were largely disregarded. Possibly permission was de facto granted when farmers reported what crops they intended to grow the following year and hemp cultivation was included in that procedure. Since the laws prohibiting Cannabis cultivation for drug production were first enacted, law enforcement officials used them to levy penalties against hemp farmers, further discouraging them to continue cultivation for fiber and seed. During this time the regulations were not widely understood by rural farmers and there was often confusion about whether hemp cultivation was legal or not. Hemp farming likely ceased more slowly in some regions than others, but hemp production eventually shrank to near nothing during the s, before , when cultivation for non-drug purposes was permitted in the 19 listed provinces. Remaining stocks of fiber, yarn, twine, and rope were utilized for many years after cultivation ceased, although by the early s most hemp supplies were exhausted. Production statistics indicate that hemp fiber and seed production began to decline in the late s well before enactment of the amended hemp laws in Yet fiber hemp production remained strong during the s and peaked in Production statistics reveal that hemp fiber production also declined during the s in many other countries such as China and the Soviet Union, with no traditional drug cannabis production, so other factors may have been of greater impact than the United Nations treaty. It appears that in Turkey adherence to the UNSCND and establishment of local laws slowly began to curtail cannabis drug production without seriously impacting hemp production. Competition from artificial fibers slowly suffocated hemp production, and by , when more accessible hemp cultivation controls were enacted, it was already too late to revitalize Turkish hemp production. After 30 years of confusing drug prohibition legislation and decreasing earnings, farmers simply realized that their hard work resulted in too little profit, and even a simplified licensing system likely served as more of an additional deterrent than increasing incentive to continued Cannabis cultivation. To the north and west from Anatolia throughout temperate Eastern and Western Europe extends an ancient continuum of hemp textile traditions based on cultivation. Turkic peoples may have brought Cannabis varieties to Anatolia for specific favored uses, but they were likely not the first. Certainly, once in Anatolia settled Turkic peoples cultivated Cannabis to satisfy their specific needs for food, textiles, and drugs. Cannabis hemp has a long history of cultivation in Anatolia from early times until the present. Hemp fiber was a strategic commodity for the Ottoman navy used for rigging and sails, and the sultanate ensured its supply through various means. Hemp fiber was also used domestically for spinning cordage and weaving heavy fabrics. Hashish production was forbidden in , and continuing confusion concerning the legal status of hemp combined with international competition from other natural fibers as well as synthetic led to a decrease in production. Commercial production and export continued during the early decades of the twentieth century but began to steadily decline following the s. Hemp seed cultivation largely for birdseed also declined during this period. Efforts by the Turkish government to revitalize the industry were only temporarily successful and production nearly ceased by the early twenty-first century. In recent years production has increased as newly emerging entrepreneurial markets for hemp fiber and seed begin to appear. Emir supported fieldwork in through , provided translations of Turkish language references, and offered a helpful overview of Turk-ish cultural history. The etymological dictionary of Turkish Internet. Cannabis: evolution and ethnobotany. Berkeley: University of California; Hodder I. Macro- and Micro-botanical remains from the and seasons. In: Haddow SD, editor. Holloway A. First hemp-weaved fabric in the World found wrapped around baby in 9,year-old house. Ancient Origins Internet. Berkol C. Human impact on Holocene sediment dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean: the example of the Roman harbour of Ephesus. Earth Surf Process Landf. Doi: Clarke RC, Gu W. Survey of hemp Cannabis sativa L. JIHA Internet. Clarke RC. Hmong hemp skirts. J Ind Hemp. Zhukovsky PM. Developments and restoration of hemp Cannabis sativa L. Istanbul: Istanbul University Press; Inter simple sequence repeats separate efficiently hemp from marijuana Cannabis sativa L. Electron J Biotechnol. Turk Electron J Biotechnol. Afr J Agric Res. Traditional fiber hemp Cannabis production, processing, yarn making, and weaving strategies: Functional constraints and regional responses: Part 1. J Nat Fibers. Traditional fiber hemp Cannabis production, processing, yarn making, and weaving strategies: Functional constraints and regional responses: Part 2. Tiret JS. Cultivation in North-Central Turkey. Hemp seed oil: a source of valuable essential fatty acids. Findley CV. The Turks in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Sherratt AG. Sacred and profane substances: the ritual use of narcotics in Later Neolithic Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press ; Los Angeles: Red Eye Press; More than 7 million Cannabis roots seized in SE Turkey. Reitox National Focal Point. Crosby AW. Hut D. J Turk Cult Stud. Cannabis production from Ottoman to Republic. Turkish Studies-Social Sciences. Iyriboz N. Kendir Hemp. İzmir: Ege Basimevi; Incekara F. Ankara: Kardes Matbaasi; Roma: FAO; cited Aug Turkey Country Drug Report Internet. United Nations. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Internet. New York: UN; cited Aug Turkish Standard. Transparency of data: Available data: The entire data set that supports the results of this study was published in the article itself. Author contribution statement: Sole author R. Clarke conceived and designed the fieldwork, collected the data, wrote the paper, and is responsible for its accuracy. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. Servicios Personalizados Revista. Review Anatolian hemp Cannabis sativa L. Abstract: Cannabis sativa L. Keywords: Cannabis; hemp; Anatolia; Turkey; regulations. Resumen: La Cannabis sativa L. Resumo: A Cannabis sativa L. Introduction Hemp Cannabis sativa L. Materials and methods Historical research relied on published books available in libraries and private collections, peer-reviewed articles accessed via the Internet, and personal communications with area researchers. Results and discussion 3. Geographical setting and origins of Anatolian Cannabis Anatolia forms the westernmost land mass of Asia, bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west, and makes up the majority of present-day Turkey lying to the east of the Bosporus Strait joining the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Historical Anatolian hemp production regions Cannabis cultivation for fiber has a long history in Turkey. Anatolian Cannabis evolutionary origins and genetic diversity Hemp fiber has a lengthy history across temperate Eurasia, and cultures in various regions have utilized differing localized Cannabis landraces. Uses of Cannabis in Anatolia Cannabis has grown in Anatolia for centuries valued for its strong durable fibers, nutritious seed, and psychoactive compounds, and it was cultivated and utilized across a large part of the region well into the twentieth century. Historical production and use of Cannabis in Anatolia The written history of Anatolian hemp production spans many decades and is best considered in two phases; the Ottoman Empire period beginning in the late thirteenth century and lasting until the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in , when began the ongoing Modern period. Hemp cultivation and processing Anatolian hemp crops are grown and processed in much the same way as in other regions worldwide. Cannabis production statistics The twentieth century was a time of great economic and political changes that impacted Turkish hemp production, and those conditions are reflected in production statistics. Cannabis production regulations The League of Nations founded in created an international body to address issues of drug control. Impact of drug laws on Turkish hemp production The possible effects of drug laws on Turkish hemp production can be further understood in the context of international hemp production statistics for other countries. Conclusions - History, present situation, and prospects To the north and west from Anatolia throughout temperate Eastern and Western Europe extends an ancient continuum of hemp textile traditions based on cultivation. References 1. Received: February 15, ; Accepted: July 31,

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