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The content of this summary does not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the European Union, nor the official opinion of the Republic of Uzbekistan, and should be seen as the product of CADAP 5. No study on the prevalence of drug use among the general population has been conducted in the Republic of Uzbekistan. For the study, schools were randomly selected according to their geographical location in the city of Tashkent and in the Tashkent, Samarkand, Andijan, Bukhara, and Surkhandarya regions. A total of 5 children born in 2 boys and 3 girls were interviewed. The study found low levels of drug use — about 0. All these cases were experimental, and did not turn into regular use. Each section provides 17 hours of training per year. It found that The Tashkent City Drug Clinic, in conjunction with the Department of Addiction of the Tashkent Institute of Advanced Medical Education, prepared an hour programme for teachers about the prevention and early detection of drug addiction among children and adolescents. The programme includes training in recognising the signs that someone is using drugs, the medical and social consequences of abuse, and identification of risk groups in schools. It describes specific measures for teachers to take if they detect drug consumption, the basic principles of drug prevention, how to implement a school drug-dependence prevention programme, and interactive methods of prevention work with the students. It highlights the role of schools and families in preventing drug dependence, working with the parents. An hour programme of seminars was developed for medical doctors working in primary care, addressing the early detection and prevention of alcoholism, drug addiction and drug abuse. A similar six-hour training programme has been provided for Mahalla activists on the prevention and early detection of drug abuse. At the National University and several colleges in Tashkent trained facilitators and representatives from the Department of Addiction of TUDI conducted a programme on preventive education against drug use, which has been attended by 1 students. Preventive activities reached 31 young people from all the regions of the country. From 1 February to 1 March the country held a special event for the prevention of drug abuse among young people, to identify those involved in drug trafficking, and to determine the involvement of young people in drug addiction and with drug dealers. Meetings and discussions were organised at higher education institutions and their branches, colleges and secondary schools, which were attended by more than 3. In addition, meetings and discussions were held at 2 institutions, organisations and enterprises where the bulk of workers are young people. Within a month dedicated to the prevention of drug use at the occasion of the International Day against Drug Abuse 26 June over 1. More than 1. Posters with a social message were placed on the main streets of regional centres. The national and local press published about special articles. The topic was also given broad coverage by the National Television and Radio Company in the central and regional channels through TV and radio programmes, news reports, art films and documentaries. The most recent study of the prevalence of problem drug use in Uzbekistan was held under the auspices of UNODC in It estimated that the number of injecting problematic drug users in was 0. Drug treatment specialists have expressed caution about this high figure, and more reliable analysis is required using standard scientific epidemiological methods. According to the results of the study, the average age at which drugs were first injected was In This pattern is much more common among males A total of According to the Ministry of Health, the number of IDUs registered in the narcological register 1 was 8 in 9 in The number of injecting heroin users was 8 , or The proportion of opium injectors in all IDUs was 7. According to this normative document, the register records those who use psychoactive substances without prescription, and voluntarily attend or are directed by the law enforcement authorities or medical facilities to attend public drug treatment centres for medical examination. If drug dependence is diagnosed, individuals are subject to regular medical check-ups and dynamic observation in outpatient substance abuse treatment units. The diagnosis can be made in both outpatient and inpatient facilities, but only by narcologists and on the basis of a thorough examination. If an individual disagrees with the diagnosis of drug dependence, they may make a complaint to higher health authorities or to the court. The decision on whether someone should be included in the dispensary register is taken by the medical advisory committee of each drug treatment facility. Dispensary registration is carried out at the place of residence of a drug user, at the local drug treatment facility. Exclusions apply to people who apply voluntarily for anonymous drug treatment. In these cases, the dispensary registration of patients is not performed. Patients whose addiction continues without remission and those who first applied for drug treatment in the outpatient setting are examined at least once a month. During follow-up, patients should receive adequate medical care to prolong remission. Dispensary registration of three years is stipulated in cases of a sustained period of remission. In the first year of remission the patient is examined once a month; in the second year of remission this is reduced to once every two months; and in the third year, once every three months. Removal from dispensary registration in connection with stable remission takes place on the basis of the opinion of the medical advisory committee and drug treatment facility where the patient is observed. In cases of drug use without clinical signs of dependence, drug users are subject to preventive registration. The purpose of preventive registration is to prevent the formation of drug dependence. Drug users on preventive supervision are examined at least once a month. Full abstinence from drug use and the absence of signs of dependence limit the proactive monitoring period to one year. In the event of continued drug use and the formation of drug dependence syndrome, the patient is transferred to dispensary registration Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan, a. The total number of people registered in the medical preventive and dispensary treatment institutions was 20 in 20 in The number of drug addicts on dispensary registration was 18 in 19 in The national prevalence rate of those registered with the narcological system decreased to 7. In the number of patients treated in drug treatment facilities was 4 5 in , of whom 4 Some Most of the patients treated 4 , or No users of amphetamines, ecstasy and cocaine were registered among the individuals who were treated. The number of patients who sought hospital care in was 3 4 in , of which people were seeking treatment for the first time ever In the proportion of patients treated as inpatients was In some drug addicts were compulsorily treated in Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan, a. In some 3 new HIV cases were identified 3 in , of whom in were injecting drug users Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan, b. Among all registered persons living with HIV 18 in and 21 in , the number and proportion of HIV-infected drug users reduced from 6 In recent years, a bio-behavioural surveillance survey BBS has been conducted in Uzbekistan to assess the epidemiological situation with respect to infectious diseases among IDUs and other risk groups. The purpose of this BBS is to systematically and regularly collect information for the study of the dynamics and factors in the spread of HIV infection in combination with monitoring risk behaviour in risk groups injecting drug users, commercial sex workers, men who have sex with men, etc. The BBS methodology is based on the representative sampling of individual groups of the population and is less costly in comparison with studies in the general population. The BBS uses a standard case definition, a standard research protocol, which is performed under standard conditions during the implementation of the BBS in all survey centres to ensure the comparability of the data. The sampling design is respondent-driven sampling RDS. The calculation of the sample size is determined separately for each sentinel site, depending on the assessment of the prevalence of HIV among injecting drug users, the size of the accepted sampling error, and the number of injecting drug users using the Epi-Info 3. BBS does not change the known types of surveillance, such as the current national system, unlinked anonymous and other forms of surveillance, but complements them. The case definition of HIV for BBS purposes is based on the following laboratory criteria: a positive result of the analysis of the specimen in the screening test for HIV antibodies followed by positive test results in confirmation tests. The specimen can be whole blood, serum or dried blood. The survey reported that the prevalence of HIV among injecting drug users was 8. The institution responsible for the collection of data on drug-related deaths is the Central Bureau of Forensic Medicine of the Ministry of Health of Uzbekistan. Data by gender, age, and geographical region are sent once every six months to the Monitoring Centre of the Ministry of Health. According to the Central Bureau of Forensic Medicine of the Ministry of Health, the number of deaths from drug overdoses was 37 in 38 in , or 0. The number of drug addicts removed from dispensary registration in drug treatment facilities as a result of death was in in , accounting for 2. The overall mortality of drug users was found to be 6. The country has a network of specialised drug treatment facilities consisting of the Republican Drug Treatment Centre, 16 drug dispensaries 13 of which have inpatient units , three substance abuse hospitals, and 11 drug treatment offices within the system of psychiatric hospitals. At local levels, central outpatient clinics have opened narcological rooms. There are 34 functioning juvenile narcological rooms. In total there are 1 beds available for the treatment of substance abuse patients Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan, a. Private drug treatment clinics also exist in the country. According to the Ministry of Health, 18 private clinics have received a licence to provide drug addiction treatment since The Department of Addiction and Adolescent Psychopathology of the Tashkent Institute of Advanced Medical Education is the leading agency with a methodological function in substance abuse treatment. Along with the pharmacological treatment, psychological counselling, psychotherapy or complex medico-social rehabilitation can be used. Drug treatment facilities implement a model for providing drug treatment based on a holistic approach to meeting the needs of drug addicts for medical, psychological and social services to ensure the quality and efficiency of therapeutic interventions, the expansion of the list of services, and increased access for drug users to treatment and prevention programmes. The components of the model are detoxification, pharmacological treatment of withdrawal symptoms, inpatient and outpatient rehabilitation and preventive treatment. Interventions are implemented in a strict sequence, with the gradual transfer of the patient from inpatient to outpatient treatment. A medical report on the need for compulsory treatment is issued after a patient has been examined by a specialised medical board for drug examinations, organised within the narcological service. Compulsory treatment is stipulated by the court only for those patients who disturb public order and the rights of others or who presented a health, moral or safety threat especially physical violence to others. Compulsory treatment is carried out in specialised medical institutions of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan. Compulsory treatment is carried out in accordance with the standard for diagnosis, treatment and medical and social rehabilitation of drug patients approved by the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan in December The duration of compulsory medical treatment is determined by the commission of specialised medical institutions within five days of the patient being placed on compulsory treatment. In determining the period of compulsory treatment, clinical parameters duration of the disease, severity of clinical manifestations of the syndrome according to the severity of personality disorder and the level of social pathology are taken into account. Re-examination with a view to extending the compulsory treatment is carried out only in the event of insufficient recovery of the patient after the initial term of the treatment Ministry of Health of the Republic of Uzbekistan, ; Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Uzbekistan, In the number of trust points was ; currently there are The number and location of the trust points depends on the situation in each region. In some IDUs visited trust points. The trust points disseminated 11 information and educational materials more than 7 booklets and leaflets, and 3 brochures and more than 2. In addition, IDUs received more than 2. Those who asked for HIV tests received anonymous pre- and post-test consultations, and also counselling on HIV, sexually transmitted infections, the consequences of drug abuse, etc. More than referrals to specialists narcologists, obstetrician-gynaecologists, dendrologists, therapists, psychologists, etc. In the law enforcement agencies of the Republic of Uzbekistan reported 8 drug-law offences 8 in , including selling 4 , trafficking , storage 1 , cultivation 1 and running drug dens In the judicial authorities investigated 3 criminal cases of drug trafficking 4 in , which resulted in criminal charges being brought against 5 people 5 in In some 5 tons of drugs were seized tons in An analysis of the social situation of people who committed drug crimes showed that The Republic of Uzbekistan is a party to several international conventions, agreements, and treaties, including the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of , the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of , and the Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of The activities of drug and AIDS services are governed by departmental and inter-departmental regulations. Attempts are being made to improve the legal and regulatory framework governing the activities of trust points and centres for AIDS, representing services to reduce drug-related harm. The national drug strategy was formed in with the establishment of the State Commission on Drug Control of the Republic of Uzbekistan and its executive staff — the National Research and Information Centre on Drug Control under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan. It regulates measures in the field of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors, and is intended to counter illicit trafficking, protect the health of citizens and ensure national security. The State Commission is guided by the laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan, decrees and orders of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan, decrees and orders of the Cabinet of Ministers and the rules of international law on drug control. All state bodies, all enterprises, institutions and organisations regardless of ownership, and voluntary associations of citizens, are obliged to assist the State Commission on Drug Control in solving the tasks assigned to it. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. Breadcrumb Home Publications Overview of the drug situation in Uzbekistan Overview of the drug situation in Uzbekistan Updated: March Drug use among the general population and young people Prevention Problem drug use Treatment demand Drug-related infectious diseases Drug-related deaths Treatment responses Harm reduction responses Drug markets and drug-law offences National drug laws National drug strategy Coordination mechanism in the field of drugs References. The World Factbook. International Centre for Prison Studies.
With cannabis, cocaine, heroin, morphine, dionine and codeine all available in early Soviet Central Asia, psychiatrists also decried the concurrent use of.
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There is limited illicit cultivation of cannabis and small amounts of opium poppy for domestic consumption. Poppy cultivation was almost wiped out by government crop eradication program. Uzbekistan is a transit point for heroin precursor chemicals bound for Afghanistan. With an estimated 2, to 3, hectares of domestic opium poppy grown annually in the s, Uzbekistan's society long has been exposed to the availability of domestic narcotics as well as to the influx of drugs across the border from Afghanistan often by way of Tajikistan. Since independence, border security with Afghanistan and among the former Soviet Central Asian republics has become more lax, intensifying the external source problem. Uzbekistan is centrally located in its region, and the transportation systems through Tashkent make that city an attractive hub for narcotics movement from the Central Asian fields to destinations in Western Europe and elsewhere in the CIS. In and , shipments of thirteen and fourteen tons of hashish were intercepted in Uzbekistan on their way to the Netherlands. Increasingly in the s, drug sales have been linked to arms sales and the funding of armed groups in neighboring Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Drug-related crime has risen significantly in Uzbekistan during this period. Uzbekistani authorities have identified syndicates from Georgia, Azerbaijan, and other countries active in the Tashkent drug trade. In the s, the Ministry of Health recognized that Uzbekistan had a serious narcotics addiction problem. Domestic drug use has risen sharply in the s as well. In the Ministry of Health listed 12, registered addicts, estimating that the actual number of addicts was likely about 44, Opium poppy cultivation is concentrated in Samarkand and along the border with Tajikistan, mainly confined to small plots and raised for domestic consumption. Cannabis, which grows wild, is also increasingly in use. In government authorities recognized domestic narcotics processing as a problem for the first time when they seized several kilograms of locally made heroin. The seven substance abuse rehabilitation clinics in Uzbekistan at that time treated both alcoholism and narcotics abuse. In , people were convicted of planting narcotic plants. However, without details on whether these convictions were for a few plants or several acres, it is difficult to draw any conclusions on the scale of illicit cultivation in Uzbekistan. As a wild crop, it is commonly found growing alongside roads or in fields throughout the country. The total area of cultivated and wild cannabis grown in Uzbekistan is not known, and it appears that there is some fluctuation year on year, perhaps as a result of opium-focused eradication efforts. Also in , individuals were reported to have been convicted of planting narcotic plants although it is not clear what proportion was poppy or ephedra, and what cannabis. Overall, it appears that cannabis cultivation is increasing, although it appears that the harvest remains in Uzbekistan and is not produced in large enough quantities to export. Cultivation remains illegal, but there is apparently an exemption made for men aged over 60 and women aged over It differs from the type found in northern India, Pakistan and Nepal—this type C. According to some sources, C. Like its neighbours, Uzbekistan has a long history of cannabis use, and is part of the region in which cannabis first evolved and developed into its various subspecies. Cannabis is still of socioeconomic importance to many Uzbeks. Specifically, it is thought that C. However, the region is a centre of diversity; other types, such as ruderalis, may grow in more northerly parts of Uzbekistan. The Bronze Age Oxus Civilisation inhabited the region in around BCE; archaeological evidence indicates ritual use of cannabis, although this has been disputed. Later around BCE , Scythian equestrian tribes from the northern steppes began to settle the region, leaving their own archaeological evidence of cannabis use. It also seems plausible that a lively trade in cannabis existed within what is now Uzbekistan during the Silk Road era. The percentage of young people who had used cannabis ten times or more in their lifetime was 0. This indicates that cannabis use is minimal among youth in Uzbekistan, with lifetime use prevalence lower than inhalant use. Cannabis use among registered drug users in Uzbekistan in registered cannabis users: ; cumulative total percent of all RDUs: 15 percent; prevalence per , population: Estimated annual prevalence of cannabis use as a percentage of the adult population annual prevalence, year of estimate : Uzbekistan: 4. Percentage of students age 16 who reported using cannabis by frequency: lifetime use: boys: 0. Hashish seizures in Uzbekistan, in tons : A 0. According to Sensi Seeds: Uzbekistan has an active culture of cannabis use; it is regarded as traditional, and is widely socially accepted. Cannabis use is increasing in some urban centres, but for the most part it has remained consistent in recent years. It is the most widely-used illicit substance in Uzbekistan, and it is estimated that 4. Heroin use is increasing at worrying rates, and is of far greater concern to authorities and healthcare workers than cannabis use, or even the more traditional use of opium. In , the Uzbek Olympic silver-medallist judo practitioner Abdullo Tangriev was disqualified from the 30th Olympic Games in London and suspended from competing for two years after traces of cannabis were found in his blood during routine drug testing—to widespread public disapproval. According to Sensi Seeds: Although there is limited domestic production of narcotics in Uzbekistan, the country is of great strategic importance to trafficking gangs operating throughout the region. Opium, heroin and hashish originating in Afghanistan follow one of several routes into Uzbekistan, either crossing the short, km Uzbek-Afghan border itself, or arriving via the eastern borders shared with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. From Uzbekistan they travel north and west through Kazakhstan and across the Caspian Sea to Europe, or north to Russia. Cross-border access resumed in with the opening of the Friendship Bridge, but the border is frequently closed on the Uzbek side due to perceived security threats from Afghanistan. Now that some cross-border activity is permitted, it is likely that traffic of contraband has resumed, but it is unlikely that it would reach previous levels. Now, the majority of contraband entering Uzbekistan is thought to arrive from Tajikistan—although there are few border crossing there too, they are less heavily guarded and there is generally less suspicion of trafficking occurring. For possession and use, individuals may be punished with correctional labour or imprisonment of up to three years, or five years in the case of prior convictions. Drug users are institutionally criminalised, and compulsory registration, treatment programs and routine testing are imposed. For medium-sized quantities, years is the standard sentence, and for larger quantities years. For particularly large quantities or for sale conducted by organised or recidivist groups, the sentence may be as high as 20 years. For trafficking of smaller quantities limits are not defined , individuals are subject to a custodial sentence of years; for larger quantities, the prescribed sentence is years. According to Sensi Seeds: As drug use is heavily criminalised in Uzbekistan, it is advisable for visitors to exercise extreme caution if attempting to secure cannabis or hashish. Knowledge of a good, local contact goes a long way, as with most countries; however, in the absence of such assistance, frequenting the bars and nightclubs in urban areas of Tashkent and other major cities will usually yield results with time. This included , tablets, ampoules, and General drug use, synthetic drug use and inhalant use is nearly non-existent among young people in Uzbekistan 0. As in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, the lifetime use of inhalants was greater than the use of cannabis, although both figures were insignificant in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan has the lowest rate of inhalant use of the four Central Asian countries surveyed. Within the past 12 months, 0. Percentage of students in Uzbekistan who reported synthetic drug use within the past 12 months and 30 days: Used once or more in the past 12 months: inhalants: boys: 0. Percentage of students age 16 who reported never using drugs in their lifetime: Uzbekistan: any drug use: Of these, 95 percent were male and two thirds were between 20 to 40 years old. The majority of drug users registered are opiate users — primarily heroin users 64 percent and who administer the drug by injecting more than 85 percent. In contrast to the cumulative number of registered drug users, UNODC estimates that as many as , people or 0. Notably, injecting as the method of administering opiates in Uzbekistan is lower 61 percent than in Kyrgyzstan 96 percent and Tajikistan 75 percent. By December , the largest single urban population of registered drug users, and highest estimated prevalence of regular opiate users adult population aged 15 — 64 years , was in the capital, Tashkent. This is consistent with a wider regional trend encompassing Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan where high prevalence of drug use is estimated in the capital cities. In Tashkent city, there were registered drug users per , people in , of which up to two thirds were registered as heroin users and the majority 81 percent reported injecting. UNODC estimates also indicate a significantly lower prevalence of 0. In December , there were drug users registered per , people in Samarkand oblast. Out of these, 59 percent were registered as heroin users. Both the opiate prevalence estimates and the number of drug users registered for Samarkand are the highest in Uzbekistan, while the proportion of injectors 38 percent is the lowest for any oblast in Uzbekistan. By the end of , there were drug users per , people registered in Sukhandarya, of which 93 percent were heroin users. UNODC estimates the prevalence of opiate users as 0. There are, however, exceptions in the region. Andijon, Bukhara and Tashkent oblasts excluding the city of Tashkent and Namangan are located on the major opiate trafficking thoroughfares, and yet have relatively low prevalence rates of opiate uses. This also holds true for neighbouring Osh and Jalal-Abad oblasts in Kyrgyzstan where estimated opiate prevalence is 0. As stated above, locations with high rates of opiate use tend to be urban and are used as centralization points for storage and redistribution of opiates. Uzbekistan has drug and narco-terrorism issues, given its geographic proximity to Afghanistan and its location within a major corridor of routes of movement of Afghan heroin and opium. Several times a year, authorities announce the seizure of large drug shipments at border crossings, and this likely represents a fraction of what is transiting the country. The drug addiction problem is likely much worse than is acknowledged by the host government. The UN Office on Drugs and Crime estimates that there are ten times as many drug addicts in Uzbekistan as officially acknowledged. As with many criminal activities, the expatriate community is not generally impacted by this issue. Department of State\]. Drug related crime for totalled 8, incidence. Of the 5, people convicted, the majority were convicted for selling 2, and only a small portion were convicted for trafficking Drug related crime prevalence for Uzbekistan was 31 per ,, below the regional average of 41 per , Drug Related Crimes in Uzbekistan:7, in ; 8, in ; 8, in ; 10, in ; 9, in ; 8, in ; 8, in ; 8, in ; 8, in ; 8, in Drug Related Crime Offenders in Uzbekistan: 4, in ; 4, in ; 5, in ; 6, in ; 8, in ; 6, in ; 6, in ; 6, in ; 5, in ; 5, in Samarkand and Khorezm both reported above average drug related crime figures. These three cities also have the highest prevalence of registered drug users. Cannabis seizures have been declining since with This is significantly less than the figure of 5, Much like other states in the region, cannabis seizures in Uzbekistan do not display a discernable pattern. While these three locations also recorded the highest seizure volumes in , they have all witnessed declining volumes in of 42 percent, 41 percent, and percent respectively. According to Sensi Seeds: Over the last two decades, aggressive poppy eradication campaigns have all but wiped out domestic opium production, and may have impacted cannabis cultivation too, although it is difficult to state with certainty due to the paucity of reliable information from Uzbekistan. In , it was reported that 1. This represents the second-lowest rate of cannabis and hashish seizures in Central Asia after Turkmenistan—although, as it is thought that a significant quantity of contraband is trafficked through Uzbekistan, this could also be down to ineffective counternarcotics controls. Given its proximity to Afghanistan, some Uzbek-made hashish may be labelled as Afghan and transported on, but if so, this is likely to happen only in negligible quantities. Cannabis seizures are most frequent in Tashkent and Samarkand; overall, cannabis and hashish seizures typically make up around 25 percent of total seized contraband. According to Sensi Seeds: In , it was reported that scientists from the U. Department of Agriculture USDA were working in tandem with Uzbek scientists at an ex-Soviet biological weapons facility in Tashkent, the Uzbek capital, to produce a fungus with selective herbicidal properties known as Fusarium oxysporum. The project was also reported to be conducted using British funding, operating under the mandate of the U. Drug Control Program. A separate pathogen, Pleospora papaveracea, specifically targets opium poppy. However, the ecological impact as well as that on human health of these organisms has not been fully tested, and environmentalists have expressed grave concerns that non-target species can be affected, and that the pathogens can remain in the soil for decades. In , members of the U. Page Top. This site contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been authorized by the copyright owner. Such material is made available in an effort to advance understanding of country or topic discussed in the article. This constitutes 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U. Section , the material on this site is distributed without profit. If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use', you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. If you are the copyright owner and would like this content removed from factsanddetails. 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