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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Region of the torso of a primate which in females serves as a mammary gland
For other uses, see Breast (disambiguation) .
Morphology of human female breasts with the areola , nipple , and inframammary fold
Look up breast in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Scientists Still Stumped by the Evolution of Human Breasts" . Archived from the original on 4 February 2022 . Retrieved 4 February 2022 .
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^ Pawłowski, Bogusław; Żelaźniewicz, Agnieszka (2021). "The evolution of perennially enlarged breasts in women: a critical review and a novel hypothesis" . Biological Reviews . 96 (6): 2794–2809. doi : 10.1111/brv.12778 . ISSN 1469-185X . PMID 34254729 . S2CID 235807642 . Archived from the original on 30 November 2021 . Retrieved 30 November 2021 .
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^ Jump up to: a b Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell (2005). Gray's anatomy for students . illustrations by Richard Richardson, Paul. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0 .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Love, Susan M. (2015). "1". Dr. Susan Love's Breast Book (6 ed.). U.S.A.: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-07382-1821-2 .
^ Jump up to: a b Stöppler, Melissa Conrad. "Breast Anatomy" . Archived from the original on 27 June 2015 . Retrieved 28 June 2015 .
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^ Pamplona DC, de Abreu Alvim C. Breast Reconstruction with Expanders and Implants: a Numerical Analysis. Artificial Organs 8 (2004), pp. 353–356.
^ Grassley, JS (2002). "Breast Reduction Surgery: What every Woman Needs to Know". Lifelines . 6 (3): 244–249. doi : 10.1111/j.1552-6356.2002.tb00088.x . PMID 12078570 .
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Breast Development" . Massachusetts Hospital for Children. Archived from the original on 25 December 2010 . Retrieved 2 June 2010 .
^ Lauersen, Niels H.; Stukane, Eileen (1998). The Complete Book of Breast Care (1st Trade Paperback ed.). New York: Fawcett Columbine/Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-449-91241-6 . ...there is no medical reason to wear a bra, so the decision is yours, based on your own personal comfort and aesthetics. Whether you have always worn a bra or always gone braless, age and breastfeeding will naturally cause your breasts to sag.
^ Rinker, B; Veneracion, M; Walsh, C (2008). "The Effect of Breastfeeding on Breast Aesthetics" . Aesthetic Surgery Journal . 28 (5): 534–7. doi : 10.1016/j.asj.2008.07.004 . PMID 19083576 .
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^ Brisken; Malley (2 December 2010), "Hormone Action in the Mammary Gland", Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol , 2 (12): a003178, doi : 10.1101/cshperspect.a003178 , PMC 2982168 , PMID 20739412
^ Greenbaum AR, Heslop T, Morris J, Dunn KW (April 2003). "An Investigation of the Suitability of Bra fit in Women Referred for Reduction Mammaplasty". British Journal of Plastic Surgery . 56 (3): 230–6. doi : 10.1016/S0007-1226(03)00122-X . PMID 12859918 .
^ Loughry CW; et al. (1989). "Breast Volume Measurement of 598 Women using Biostereometric Analysis". Annals of Plastic Surgery . 22 (5): 380–385. doi : 10.1097/00000637-198905000-00002 . PMID 2729845 . S2CID 8713713 .
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^ Olson, James Stuart (2002). Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer and History . Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 109 . ISBN 978-0-8018-6936-5 . OCLC 186453370 .
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^ Jump up to: a b c Shire, Emily (9 September 2014). "Women, It's Time to Reclaim Our Breasts" . The Daily Beast . Archived from the original on 1 November 2016 . Retrieved 11 December 2016 .
^ Yalom (1998) pp. 9–16; see Eva Keuls (1993), Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens for a detailed study of male-dominant rule in ancient Greece.
^ Yalom (1998), p. 18.
^ Hollander (1993), p. 6.
^ Koff, E., Benavage, A. Breast Size Perception and Satisfaction, Body Image, and Psychological Functioning in Caucasian and Asian American College Women. Sex Roles 38, 655–673 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018802928210 Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
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"Breast supporting act: a century of the bra" . London: The Independent UK. 15 August 2007. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 11 May 2010 .
^ Wood, K; Cameron, M; Fitzgerald, K (2008). "Breast size, bra fit and thoracic pain in young women: a correlational study" . Chiropr Osteopat . 16 : 1. doi : 10.1186/1746-1340-16-1 . PMC 2275741 . PMID 18339205 .
^ Bohidar, Anannya (27 October 2015). "Worshipping Breasts in the Maternal Landscape of India" . South Asian Studies . 31 (2015): 247–253. doi : 10.1080/02666030.2015.1094209 . S2CID 194282633 . Archived from the original on 2 January 2021 . Retrieved 30 September 2020 .
^ Wolf, J.H. (2008). "Got milk? Not in public!" . International Breastfeeding Journal . 3 (1): 11. doi : 10.1186/1746-4358-3-11 . PMC 2518137 . PMID 18680578 .
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^ Alfred C. Kinsey; Wardell B. Pomeroy; Clyde E. Martin; Paul H. Gebhard (1998). Sexual Behavior in the Human Female . Indiana University Press . p. 587. ISBN 0-253-01924-9 . Retrieved 12 August 2017 . There are some females who appear to find no erotic satisfaction in having their breasts manipulated; perhaps half of them derive some distinct satisfaction, but not more than a very small percentage ever respond intensely enough to reach orgasm as a result of such stimulation (Chapter 5). [...] Records of females reaching orgasm from breast stimulation alone are rare.
^ Boston Women's Health Book Collective (1996). The New Our Bodies, Ourselves: A Book by and for Women . Simon & Schuster . p. 575. ISBN 0-684-82352-7 . Archived from the original on 24 December 2020 . Retrieved 12 August 2017 . A few women can even experience orgasm from breast stimulation alone.
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Look up breasts in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Breasts .
Wikiquote has quotations related to Breast .
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Radiation Oncology/Breast
The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of a primate 's torso . Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues.
In females, it serves as the mammary gland , which produces and secretes milk to feed infants . [2] Subcutaneous fat covers and envelops a network of ducts that converge on the nipple , and these tissues give the breast its size and shape. At the ends of the ducts are lobules , or clusters of alveoli , where milk is produced and stored in response to hormonal signals . [3] During pregnancy, the breast responds to a complex interaction of hormones, including estrogens , progesterone , and prolactin , that mediate the completion of its development, namely lobuloalveolar maturation, in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding .
Humans are the only animals with permanent breasts. At puberty , estrogens , in conjunction with growth hormone , cause permanent breast growth in female humans. This happens only to a much lesser extent in other primates—breast development in other primates generally only occurs with pregnancy . Along with their major function in providing nutrition for infants, female breasts have social and sexual characteristics. Breasts have been featured in ancient and modern sculpture, art, and photography. They can figure prominently in the perception of a woman's body and sexual attractiveness . A number of cultures associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts in public as immodest or indecent. Breasts, especially the nipples, are an erogenous zone .
The English word breast derives from the Old English word brēost ('breast, bosom') from Proto-Germanic * breustam (breast), from the Proto-Indo-European base bhreus– (to swell, to sprout). [4] The breast spelling conforms to the Scottish and North English dialectal pronunciations. [5] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary states that " Middle English brest , [comes] from Old English brēost ; akin to Old High German brust ..., Old Irish brú [belly], [and] Russian bryukho "; the first known usage of the term was before the 12th century. [6]
A large number of colloquial terms for breasts are used in English, ranging from fairly polite terms to vulgar or slang. [7] Some vulgar slang expressions may be considered to be derogatory or sexist to women. [8]
Humans are the only mammals whose breasts become permanently enlarged after sexual maturity (known in humans as puberty ). The reason for this evolutionary change was unknown. [9] Several hypotheses have been put forward:
A link has been proposed to processes for synthesizing the endogenous steroid hormone precursor dehydroepiandrosterone which takes place in fat rich regions of the body like the buttocks and breasts. These contributed to human brain development and played a part in increasing brain size. Breast enlargement may for this purpose may have occurred as early as Homo ergaster (1.7-1.4 MYA ). [10] Other breast formation hypotheses may have then taken over as principal drivers. [11] [12] [13]
It has been suggested by zoologists Avishag and Amotz Zahavi that the size of the human breasts can be explained by the handicap theory of sexual dimorphism . This would see the explanation for larger breasts as them being an honest display of the women's health and
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